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Chadwick Lakes. Source: maltainfoguide.com

The Maltese Islands, set in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, are blessed with long hours of sunshine but very little rainfall. They have no rivers, no lakes, and no mountains to capture and store water. From the very beginning, this made water one of the greatest challenges for the people who lived here.

Across the Mediterranean, droughts and water shortages are common. For thousands of years, people depended on one main solution: finding and using underground water. This meant understanding the land beneath their feet and developing clever ways to collect and store every drop of rain.

Bird’s-eye view of Valletta and the Three Cities. Source: timesofmalta.com

The natural shape of the islands helped guide early settlement. Malta’s harbours, including the Grand Harbour near Birgu and the Cottonera area, were once valleys carved by ancient rivers. These valleys slope gently toward the sea, allowing rainwater to flow down from the rocky hills in the (North) west. The earliest settlers, arriving by boat, likely stayed close to the coast at first. Gradually, they moved inland to places where natural springs provided reliable water. Indeed, most of the pre-historic settlements and megalithic structures were built on high plateaus next to the source of springs.

Over time, people learned how to improve on nature. One of their most important discoveries was that Malta’s rock could be carved. As far back as the Neolithic period, people were already cutting deep cisterns into the rock to collect and store rainwater. For example, close to Cottonera, the Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum cistern reached a depth of seven metres from floor to ceiling.

Hypogeum cistern. Source: Heritage Malta

But before water could be stored, it had to be collected. Rainwater was gathered not only from rooftops and land surfaces, but also through underground systems. Early inhabitants dug tunnels, known as galleries, into the rock to capture water as it slowly filtered through the ground. In total over time, around 42 kilometres of these galleries were created across Malta and Gozo, a remarkable achievement for such small islands.

Perched aquifer reservoir, Lunzajta Valley. Source:Keith Buhagiar, https://hydriaproject.info/

To understand how these systems worked, we need to look at Malta’s geology. Much of the island is made of layers of limestone resting on clay. Rainwater seeps through the (upper coralline) limestone until it reaches blue clay, which does not let water pass through easily. When this happens, the water collects and forms what is called a ‘perched aquifer.’ Springs are formed when geological faults create interruptions in the blue clay layer that allows water to escape from a perched aquifer.

A perched aquifer is like a hidden pocket of water trapped above the main groundwater level. Normally, water would keep moving downward to the globerigina limestone strata, but the clay layer, acting as a geological barrier, blocks it, causing it to gather in small reservoirs underground. People learned to tap into these pockets by digging horizontal tunnels, perched aquifer galleries; that allowed them to collect water directly from within the rock. These systems provided a steady supply of water, even during dry summers, and were often connected to fields through small channels so crops could be irrigated. These galleries were usually dug at the same level as the highest terraced fields in the valley.

Evidence shows that early cave dwellers understood this system well. Many cave settlements were located in areas where these aquifers could be reached easily. By digging into the right type of rock, they ensured a constant water supply for both daily life and agriculture. Similar systems have been found in nearby regions like Sicily, in various cave clusters (such as those at Pantalica, Cava d’Ispica, Scicli, and Enna), suggesting shared knowledge across the Mediterranean.

Ancient Malta

Opening to bell-shaped cistern at at Ras il-Wardija near Kercem on Gozo Source: muyinteresante.okdiario.com

As Malta’s population grew and new civilizations arrived, water systems became more advanced. The Phoenicians, and later the Romans, developed more complex cisterns. These were often bell-shaped or rectangular, carved carefully into the rock (such as the ones at the Phoenician temple located at Ras il-Wardija near Kercem on Gozo), and sometimes covered with stone slabs supported by pillars (such as the cistern at the Roman Latifundia/farm at Ta’ Kaċċatura in Birżebbuġa). In Roman sites such as the Domvs Romana, which features no less than 13 cisterns, wells were dug deep enough (12 m below surface level) to reach the perched aquifer, providing a continuous water supply. Rainwater was also carefully channelled into storage systems using covered carved stone pathways. The Romans made use of pre-existing cisterns, which they then connected to each other. Their baths, such as the bathing complexes at Għajn Tuffieħa in Malta and the Villa Mariitima at Ramla Bay in Gozo were fed by springs located at the mouth of valleys.

Ta’ Kaċċatura cistern. Source: Heritage Malta

During this time, the main centre of life, and the Island’s capital, was Melite Civitas (later Mdina), Malta’s first fortified city. Built on high ground for protection, Mdina depended heavily on stored rainwater, deep wells, and a few natural springs on its slopes. Outside the city, villages relied on their own cisterns and nearby springs. This pattern shows how every community had to manage its own water carefully.

Meanwhile, the harbour areas, including Birgu and what would later become the Cottonera region, remained important because of their access to the sea, but they were also among the driest and most water-scarce parts of the islands. Over time, these areas would need increasingly sophisticated systems to support growing populations.

Medieval Malta

When the Arabs arrived in 870 AD, they brought with them the foundations of the Maltese language. To begin with, the Maltese word for water ilma (il-ma) means ‘the mother’ or rather the mother of all life. Għajn means spring, bir- well, wied-valley and saqqaja -irrigation.

Water gallery, Wied ir-Rum: Source: https://hydriaproject.info/

We find most of the place names (toponyms) that feature the word Għajn (such as Għajn Tuffieħa, which we have mentioned), in the north of the island because that is where most of the blue clay and perched aquifers can be found. The only Għajn that is located in the Cottonera region is Għajn Dwieli near Bormla. Instead, in the south of Malta, many place names include the word bir illustrating how important it was to collect and store rainwater from the rainy season to last through the hot, arid summer. In fact, the town of Bormla gets its name from the words Bir Mula, meaning ‘the well of the lord’ in Arabic.

Triq Għajn Dwieli Paola under construction 1901. Source: uk.pinterest.com

Agricultural estates known as viridaria during the medieval period, (later referred to as Giardini) were also located close to springs and made use of the qanat water gallery system used to extract underground water, a technique that may have reached Malta from neighbouring Sicily during Arab rule.

The first known reference to a giardino (garden) in Malta is at Gomerino estate in the territory of Rabat, and dates to 1317, whilst in 1361, there is mention of a spring originating from water galleries at Għajn Qajjied, and that of a fountain/ spring at Ġnien ir-Rummien in 1372/3 in Gozo. The largest known concentration of perched aquifer water galleries in the Maltese Islands has so far been found at Wied ir-Rum, and although the first evidence for the presence of these particular galleries date to between 1623 and 1654, they were probably built much earlier.

Entrance gate to the Palazzo Gomerino estate. Source: Kappa Vision

These systems helped channel water from natural underground sources, making it possible to sustain gardens throughout the year. Because of this, gardens in the northern and north-western parts of Malta often had reliable, year-round water supplies. In contrast, gardens in central and southern areas usually depended on rainfall. As a result, farmers there grew trees and crops that could survive dry conditions, such as carob, almond, fig, and olive trees, which do not need constant watering to produce good harvests.

There were some important exceptions. In places like Qormi and Marsa closer to Cottonera, certain gardens seem to have had access to deeper water sources at sea level. Another example is a garden thought to have been located near today’s Għajn Dwieli in Paola, where natural underground water trapped in the local limestone would have supported farming.

By the early 1500s, written records begin to give us more detail. In 1526, the name Tal-Għawejna appears, likely referring to an area in Birgu. Around this time, Birgu itself had many cisterns and even some wells with slightly salty water. This suggests that people had already started tapping into deeper underground water sources when fresh water was limited.

Maps from later periods show how important gardens had become. They mention several notable ones, including a garden in Marsa, another known as the Grand Master’s Garden, and one just outside the fortified walls of Birgu. The Grand Master’s Garden, sometimes called Giardino de la fontaina, located close to Għajn Dwieli or Wied Blandun most likely had access to a natural spring.

By the late medieval period, Malta already had a rich tradition of water management: rock-cut cisterns, underground galleries, springs, and wells. These systems laid the foundation for what would come next.

Malta under the Order of St John

When the Knights of St John were considering Malta as their new home, the Grand Master, Fra Philippe de L’Isle Adam first sent a commission in 1522 to inspect the island. This group was made up of one Knight from each of the eight Langues of the Order. They visited both Tripoli and Malta and produced a detailed report. Among their observations, they noted that Malta suffered from poor water conditions. Springs were few, often seasonal, and sometimes produced water that was salty or even putrid. Most people relied on rainwater collected in underground tanks or shallow ditches, while a few springs near towns and gardens provided limited additional supply. These springs tended to diminish or disappear during the summer months, as they depended on winter rainfall.

Grand Master l’Isle Adam’s solemn entry into Mdina on November 13, 1530, by Antoine Favray. Source: Heritage Malta, timesofmalta.com

Despite this unfavourable report, the Knights took possession of Malta in October 1530 and established their residence in Birgu (the Borgo), behind Fort St Angelo, where a nymphaeum and fountain are recorded as existing pre-dating the great siege.

Fort St Angelo nymphaeum and fountain. Source: Heritage Malta

From the beginning, water was a serious concern. Birgu depended mainly on cisterns dug beneath houses and streets, while the nearby Marsa springs were crucial, especially for supplying ships and the Order’s galleys. Each galley required between 300 and 370 barrels of water for a single voyage, and after loading, the squadron doctor would inspect the water to ensure it was safe to drink. Two large reservoirs in Senglea also provided water for the order’s galleys.

At the same time, the Knights were already thinking about defence. In the event of an enemy attack, they even prepared ways to make water sources unusable. Historical accounts describe how, just before the Great Siege of 1565, the Marsa springs, the large cistern at Cala di San Giorgio, the well at Cala di San Tomaso, and other fountains were deliberately poisoned using mixtures of hemp, wheat, arsenic, and other substances. According to chroniclers, this caused serious illness among enemy forces until they discovered how to purify the water.

Birgu during the Great Siege. D’Aleccio fresco, Grand Master’s Palace Valletta. Source: Heritage Malta

The importance of water became critical during the Great Siege. As Birgu came under attack, the population suffered severe shortages. The Grand Master ordered Commander Geofre de Loaysa and Jacopo Colorati, who were responsible for water supply, to search for additional sources within the city. On 21 July 1565, beneath the house of a Doctor Cadamosto, they discovered a cistern connected to a spring of running water. Although the water was brackish, it was fully utilised by the population and proved vital for survival during the siege.

After the siege, the Knights took steps to better prepare for the future. When they built Valletta, strict urban planning rules were introduced, requiring every building to include a cistern beneath it. This ensured that rainwater could be collected and stored efficiently. During dry periods, however, this was still not enough, and large barges transported water from Marsa to Valletta and Senglea.

By the late 16th century, as Valletta grew in importance, these measures became insufficient. Roof catchments and transported water could no longer meet demand.

The Wignacourt Aqueduct. Source: mhs.mt

In 1596, a proposal was presented to Grand Master Garzes to bring fresh water from the Upper Coralline Limestone springs of the Rabat plateau. This idea was approved by the Council and eventually led to the construction of the Wignacourt Aqueduct, completed in 1615 under Grand Master Alof de Wignacourt. This aqueduct was a major engineering achievement, carrying freshwater from inland springs at Rabat and Dingli to the island’s urban centres.

Meanwhile, water management within the cities continued to evolve. In Valletta, many cisterns were interconnected, allowing overflow water to flow downhill efficiently. In 1685, Grand Masters began extending the water supply further by laying additional mains and constructing more fountains. By 1695, Valletta had 23 public fountains.

Water vendors, some even coming from Gozo, were a common sight in the streets of Malta. Later, in the 18th century, Grand Master Pinto prohibited slaves from selling water.

The storage of rainwater remained especially important in the harbour area, particularly in the Three Cities, Birgu, Senglea, and Cospicua. Recognising this, in late 1722 Grand Master António Manoel de Vilhena commissioned the engineer Romano Fortunato Carapecchia to carry out a detailed survey of all cisterns and wells in Valletta and the harbour cities. His 1723 report recorded 21 public cisterns in Vittoriosa (Birgu) with a total capacity of 4,354 botte, and a further 821 private cisterns with a total capacity of 46,926 botte. These private cisterns were organised across 60 urban quarters. In addition, Carapecchia identified 40 more cisterns within fortified areas such as Castel St Angelo, the Giardini di Bichi, and Castel Ricasoli, with an additional total capacity of 19,084 botte.

The order sent out by Antoine de Vilhena to Romano Fortunato Carapecchia to document the cisterns and wells. Source: https://alteraqua.org/knights-period/

These cisterns were not only essential for storing drinking water but also played a crucial role in flood control. In areas outside the main fortifications, such as the Santa Margherita and Cottonera Lines built on higher ground, multiple cisterns were constructed to capture rainwater flowing downhill and to protect the lower Vittoriosa area and Cospicua Wharves from flooding.

Within Birgu itself, several large reservoirs demonstrate the scale and sophistication of this system. Beneath the three-gate entrance known as the Couvre Porte lies a 24-metre-long barrel-vaulted cistern dating from the Knights’ period. Another major reservoir on Strada del Quartiere (today Triq l-Arċisqof Mikiel Gonzi) had a capacity of 510,000 litres and was designed to collect runoff from bastions and rooftops, supplying water to the dense neighbourhood while preventing flooding.

The auberges which housed the Knights from each langue (before they moved to Valletta) had their own water storage. The Auberge de France, built in 1533, contained a bell-shaped underground reservoir approximately 11 metres in diameter, with a capacity of 600,000 litres. The cistern was restored in 2021 under the Alter Aqua Programme and now provides harvested rainwater for landscaping in Vittoriosa. Similarly, the Auberge d’Angleterre, built around 1535, included a well and a reservoir that supplied both the resident Knights and the surrounding community, especially during sieges.

Bell-shaped cistern in the Auberge de France. Source: Steve Mallia, https://tvmnews.mt/

Public reservoirs were also widespread. In Vittoriosa Square, Carapecchia identified four reservoirs, including a main one beneath the Victory Monument (inaugurated in 1705) with a capacity of 800,000 litres, making it the largest public rainwater harvesting system in the city. Near the Monastery of Santa Scolastica, previously the Order’s hospital, two public reservoirs with capacities of 72 and 40 botte were recorded, helping both with water supply and flood management. The area likely once contained additional reservoirs, which were later filled in during the construction or repair of the Birgu bastions. Evidence of this can still be seen in cross-sections of the bastion walls, where two bell-shaped reservoirs are visible, having been cut through to create the walls as they stand today.

As maritime activity increased in the second half of the 17th century, further infrastructure was developed. In 1689, under Grand Master Gregorio Carafa, the Caraffa Stores were built along the naval shoreline. These included a reservoir that collected rainwater for use in the complex and helped control flooding. Later, during the British period, a tunnel was cut through this reservoir to connect to Kalkara.

Additional reservoirs were identified near St Lawrence’s Church, including one of 110 botte, another of 32 botte, and a smaller one of 2 botte, all designed to collect rainwater and reduce flood risks. Across the fortified cities, these interconnected systems ensured that water could be stored, managed, and distributed as efficiently as possible.

Malta under the British

At the beginning of the 19th century, Malta still depended largely on the Wignacourt Aqueduct, which carried water from Rabat to Valletta. Although impressive for its time, the system could not meet the needs of a growing population. Water was untreated, irregular, and weak in pressure, so most people relied on public fountains or on rainwater stored in household cisterns. These sources were often contaminated, especially when nearby cesspits overflowed, and outbreaks of diseases such as cholera were never far away.

The situation became critical during the drought years between 1838 and 1841, when the springs feeding the aqueduct dried up. People in rural areas had to walk long distances just to collect small amounts of water, while others paid high prices for water delivered by mule. Farming suffered, and economic activity slowed. At the same time, Malta’s importance under British rule was rapidly increasing. The island had become a key naval base, a dockyard repair centre, a coal bunkering and transit station, and, during the Crimean War, the “nurse of the Mediterranean.” All of this placed immense pressure on an already fragile water supply.

Cospicua Reservoir. Photo: Steve Mallia- Il-Gibjun. Source : www.independent.com.mt

The British response to this growing crisis was not only practical but also transformative. Over time, Malta saw a transition from traditional stone aqueducts to iron pipes, from surface channels to deep underground galleries, and eventually to steam-powered and coal-driven pumping systems. These developments reflected a wider change in Maltese society, which was moving away from a rural economy based on landownership towards a more modern, urban economy centred on trade, industry, and naval activity.

Early improvements included the construction of the Pwales aqueduct in 1839, which carried water from Tal-Ballut spring in Wardija to a reservoir in Pwales Valley. Soon after, Governor Henry Bouverie began planning a more ambitious system to extend water distribution to the southern harbour area, including Cottonera. A major step in this plan was the construction of a large, covered reservoir at Corradino between 1841 and 1842, designed by the engineer William Lamb Arrowsmith. With a capacity of 700,000 cubic feet and a settling reservoir holding 15,000 tons of water, this structure was considered one of the largest of its kind. The inclusion of Paola in this network also encouraged its growth as an important settlement.

Sebastiano Ittar’s Map of the Inner Harbour with Casal Nuovo (Raħal Ġdid/Paola) on top left. Source: Simon Mercieca

Cisterna di Santa Tereża, a 19th-century underground water tank beneath the road between Cospicua and Vittoriosa, near St Theresa’s Church was built by the British to collect rainwater and stop it flooding Dock No. 1, while also supplying fresh water to ships in the nearby Grand Harbour.

The cistern gathers water from the streets above and is linked to the St Helen Reservoirs, completed in 1845. Together, they form part of a wider water management system.

Cisterna di Santa Tereża. Source : https://energywateragency.gov.mt/

Following detailed surveys, the British decided to construct a completely new aqueduct to serve the Three Cities.

Completed in 1845 under Governor Patrick Stuart, the Fawwara Aqueduct stretched for about nine miles from the springs in the Siġġiewi area to Cospicua. Around 300 workers were employed in its construction, making it both an engineering achievement and an important source of employment. On 7 July 1845, water finally reached Cospicua, an event celebrated with great joy by the inhabitants.

The Fawwara Aquaduct: urbact.eu

The aqueduct drew water from three main springs: Tal-Lunzjata, Ta’ Fawwara, and Ta’ San Ġorġ, located beneath the rocky plateau of Ta’ Għalija and Ġebel Ċiantar. Through a system of underground galleries cut deep into the rock, the water was collected, combined, and directed towards a service reservoir at Qrendi. From there, it was distributed across southern and eastern Malta, reaching villages such as Żurrieq, Safi, Luqa, Kirkop, Gudja, Tarxien, and Żejtun, as well as coastal forts like Rinella and Delimara. A branch line also supplied additional storage tanks in surrounding areas.

By the 1860s, the Fawwara Aqueduct was producing about 92,000 gallons per day, and later figures from the 1870s show similar outputs of around 80,000 gallons daily. This was far less than the supply available to Valletta and Floriana, and it meant that Cottonera still had to rely heavily on cisterns and stored rainwater.

Design for Birgu fountain. Source: https://alteraqua.org/british-period/

Later in 1845, iron pipes began to be laid through the streets of Cottonera, extending the supply to Birgu and Isla. By April 1846, a network of public fountains had been completed. On 22 April 1846, in the presence of Governor Stuart, these fountains were officially inaugurated. Built from local limestone and based on a common design, they provided free and accessible water to residents and quickly became an essential part of everyday life, especially in the crowded dockyard areas.

An 1847 ‘Survey of Public Tanks and Cisterns’ in Vittoriosa mentions 15 different cisterns spread across the town. These were located along Strada della Prigione near le Fosse, in and on the Bastione del Miratore, and along Strada Bastione delle Fosse. Others were found in Strada del Quartiere and Strada Porta Maggiore, as well as in the Manderaggio and along Strada Salita Porta Maggiore. Several are recorded in Strada Torre San Giovanni, including one beneath the Bishop’s prison, and in Strada dietro il Quartiere. Additional sites include areas near Porta dei Capuccini, along Strada Brettanica, in Piazza della Vittoria beneath the statue, and above the Antico Bacile.

Figure 2Section and Plan of Cisterns in Vittoriosa 1847. Source: https://alteraqua.org/british-period/

By 1858, a detailed report by Nicola Zammit, Chairman of the Water Board, recorded 35 public fountains across Malta. Valletta had 16 fountains supplying over 31 gallons per minute, Floriana had 2 fountains supplying just over 7 gallons per minute, and Cottonera had 8 fountains supplying about 21¾ gallons per minute, two each in Senglea and Cospicua, and four in Vittoriosa. In the countryside, nine additional fountains served villages such as Żebbuġ, Attard, Birkirkara, Msida, Pietà, and Paola. These fountains reduced reliance on private cisterns and helped meet the needs of a growing population and an expanding dockyard economy.

Shell Fountain below Magisterial Palace in Senglea. Source: Gregory Carmenzuli

Fountain in Birgu Square

Among the most notable examples in Cottonera was the shell-shaped fountain in Senglea, known as ‘Il-Arzella,’ located in Arches Street which was linked to local legends of mermaids dating back to the time of the Knights.

In 1867, a pipeline was built to carry water from the Ta’ Ċagħaq (‘Tal- Armier’) pumping station to a reservoir near Santa Teresa in Cospicua. The pipeline stretched about 15,000 feet (around 4.5 kilometres) and followed the edge of the Grand Harbour. Along the way, a fountain was placed at a corner of the road leading to Paola. In a 1867 report, Dr Sutherland mentions a steam-powered installation at Marsa used to provide water to ships in the Grand Harbour. Pumping stations such as those at Armier and Marsa were used to raise water for industrial and harbour use, although these systems were often limited by cost and by the difficulty of distributing water by gravity.

By 1872, water from Ta’ Ċagħaq was being pumped at about 82 gallons per minute, adding up to over 118,000 gallons each day. This water was used to supply a few public water points in Cospicua, along the Grand Harbour, and at the Dockyard. In 1878, a large water tank called the ‘Bouverie’ tank was built on Corradino Hill and connected to the aqueduct. From that year on, about £600 was set aside each year to maintain both the aqueduct and the pumping station that distributed water from Armier.

Iron pipes were also added to link different parts of the water system, including areas such as Buskett and Għajn Klieb.

The ‘Bouverie’ tank. Source: Daniel Cilia © Water Services Corporation – 8000 Years of Water

By the 1870s and 1880s, it was becoming clear that Malta needed a more organised and modern system. Reports submitted in the late 1870s stressed the urgent need for proper drainage alongside water supply, noting how contaminated water flowed through streets during routine cleaning. The connection between water quality and disease had been dramatically exposed during the cholera epidemic of 1865. The epidemic made it clear that quantity alone was not enough; water also needed to be safe.

By 1882, only a relatively small portion of the population, mainly in Valletta, Floriana, and the Three Cities, had access to aqueduct water, while the rest relied on cisterns that were still at risk of contamination.

The reforms introduced from the 1880s onwards marked a turning point. Under the guidance of engineers such as the engineer Osbert Chadwick, Malta began to move away from open channels and poorly maintained storage systems. Iron pipes replaced older stone conduits, reducing leakage and contamination, while a more continuous water supply system gradually replaced intermittent distribution. Reservoirs were expanded, new connections were made, and attention turned to previously untapped sources such as the mean sea-level aquifer, where freshwater floating above seawater could be accessed using increasingly powerful steam pumps. In his 1884 report, Chadwick calculated that rain falling on the roofs of Valletta and Floriana alone could provide around 23 million gallons of water a year, equivalent to about two gallons per person per day. A similar situation existed in the Three Cities, meaning that cisterns remained essential well into the late 19th century.

Chadwick Lakes, Rabat. Source: parksinmalta.mt

As towns expanded, water infrastructure followed. Growing suburban areas such as Sliema were connected to the system, and water towers were constructed in places like Ħamrun, Santa Venera, and Floriana to regulate pressure and ensure a steady flow. At the same time, a secondary system using lower-quality (brackish) water from places like Armier was developed for non-drinking purposes such as street cleaning, the flushing of sewers and irrigation, helping to preserve better-quality water for domestic use.

Steam-powered desalination first appeared in Malta in 1881, when a seawater distilling plant was built at Tigné in Sliema to supply British military installations. Using steam-driven evaporation and condensation, it converted seawater into fresh water, but it was soon abandoned as a primary source in favour of groundwater pumping, as it proved costly, inefficient, and unable to meet increasing demand.

Seawater distilling plant, Tigné, Sliema. Source: Atlas Oscura

By the early 20th century, important advances were made in water quality. Following outbreaks of diseases such as typhoid in 1909, scientists including Dr. T. Zammit demonstrated that water could be effectively sterilised using chlorination. This marked a major improvement in public health, ensuring that water was not only more available but also safer to drink.

Sir Temi Zammit. Source: Heritage Malta

Infrastructure continued to expand, with new pipelines and reservoirs supplying more remote areas. By 1905 public water pipes had branched out and were connected to all villages in Malta with the exception of Mellieħa. Yet even as the system improved, daily life still reflected earlier limitations. Public fountains and standpipes remained essential (in 1921, the total number of fountains in Malta was 450), and many people still had to walk some distance to collect water, even into the decades following the Second World War.

Water also played a visible role in everyday urban life. Teams known as il-bexxiexa sprayed water onto dusty streets using horse-drawn carts, helping to reduce health risks. Washerwomen gathered at springs known as għejun tal-ħasselin, where water flowed continuously into stone troughs, creating not only places of work but also important social spaces. Meanwhile, thousands of goats were driven daily into Valletta and the three cities to provide fresh milk, a reminder of how closely urban life, hygiene, and water supply were connected. The introduction of pasteurised milk put an end to water supplies being contaminated by goat faeces.

I-bexxiexa. Source: Heritage Malta

Infrastructure continued to expand between 1910 and 1914, with new pipes laid to convey water from Għajn Tuffieħa to St Paul’s Bay and the construction of service reservoirs at Bajda Ridge and Mellieha. However, work stalled during the war years of 1914–1918, during which there was no expenditure on water services.

The mid-1930s saw the formation of the Water Supply Committee (1934–35) and the Agricultural Irrigation Committee (1935–36) to address the need for more reliable water for irrigation. In 1938–39, an 800-foot extension was added to the Via Dingli galleries.

1927 Survey by the Public Works Department indicating the location of Public Reservoirs and Cisterns in Vittoriosa. Source: https://alteraqua.org/british-period/

During 1940–41, the Water Department avoided its usual summer supply crisis, largely due to late spring rains and an exodus of the population from harbour towns to the countryside. To meet the resulting increase in demand in the Rabat and Zejtun areas, booster pumps were installed at Ta’ Qali to lift water from Tal-Ħlas to supplement the inadequate Upper Coralline supplies. Additionally, an electrically driven pumping set was eventually installed at the Wied is-Sewda station, allowing it to take over duties from older diesel-driven pumps.

In the late 1950s, Britain’s decision to reduce its military presence forced Malta to diversify its economy toward agriculture, industry, and tourism. The First Five-Year Development Plan (1959–64) identified water as a basic pillar for this growth. Just before this period, three new reservoirs were completed, bringing the total storage capacity to 96.5 million gallons. Between April 1959 and March 1960, total domestic water extraction reached over 2.9 billion gallons in Malta and 138.4 million gallons in Gozo.

Independence

To meet the rising demand caused by improved living standards and new industries, the government turned to desalination. The first desalination plant, which combined electricity generation and water conversion, was completed in 1966. In June 1967, a distiller capable of producing one million gallons of fresh water a day was commissioned. This distilled water was blended with ground water at the Luqa reservoir to ensure it was palatable and non-corrosive before distribution. By the end of the 1967–68 financial year, 176 million gallons of distillate had been produced. During this era, total annual water consumption reached approximately 10 million gallons a day.

The early desalination systems based on multi-stage flash distillation, were gradually replaced in the 1980s by a more efficient method known as reverse osmosis. This marked another important turning point. The first reverse osmosis plant was opened at Għar Lapsi in 1983, and over time similar plants were developed at Ċirkewwa, Pembroke, and Qala (Gozo). These plants used high pressure to force seawater through special membranes, removing salt and impurities and producing safe drinking water.

 

Għar Lapsi Reverse Osmosis Plant. Source: maltatoday.com.mt

Despite these technological advances, everyday life in Malta during the late 1970s and 1980s still reflected the realities of water scarcity. Supply was not always continuous, and many households placed water tanks on their roofs to store water and ensure that they would not run out when taps ran dry. Changes in water pressure, caused by intermittent supply, also began to damage the distribution network, leading to increasing levels of leakage.

A major institutional change came in January 1992, when the Water Services Corporation was established to take over from the old Water Works Department. This marked the beginning of a more coordinated and modern approach to managing water resources across the islands. Over time, the Corporation developed an extensive system that today includes 42 reservoirs spread across Malta and Gozo, where different water sources are carefully blended to improve quality and reliability.

Naxxar WSC reservoir. Source: www.maltatoday.com.mt

By the mid-1990s, Malta had significantly increased its capacity to produce water, reaching around 52 million cubic metres per year, or roughly 350 litres per person per day. However, this progress came at a cost. Producing and distributing water required a large amount of energy -over 12% of the country’s electricity supply- and water systems became one of the most energy-demanding aspects of daily life. At the same time, inefficiencies in the network became more apparent. Leakage levels were extremely high, with estimates suggesting that up to 60% of the water supplied was being lost through damaged pipes, amounting to more than 25 million cubic metres each year.

To ensure that water remained safe and pleasant to use, desalinated water from reverse osmosis plants began to be blended with groundwater in distribution reservoirs. This helped balance quality, as groundwater alone was often too saline or contaminated, while desalinated water could be too pure and corrosive if used on its own.

Even with these improvements, Malta continued to face serious environmental challenges. Over-extraction of groundwater became a major concern. In many cases, more water was being pumped out of the aquifers than could be naturally replaced. This led to seawater seeping into freshwater reserves, increasing salinity, while agricultural practices contributed to rising nitrate levels. As a result, a large proportion of groundwater no longer met European standards for safe drinking water without treatment.

To meet demand, Malta increasingly relied on reverse osmosis. Between 2004 and 2013, more than half of the country’s water supply came from these plants, with the rest coming from groundwater sources.

At the same time, efforts were made to explore alternative solutions. Importantly, treated wastewater began to be reused as ‘new water,’ particularly for agriculture. Although not suitable for drinking, this polished effluent (waste) provides farmers with an alternative to groundwater, helping to reduce over-extraction and the use of energy-intensive pumping systems.

For centuries, sewage disposal in Malta had been a serious challenge. When most people lived in rural areas, waste could be disposed of in fields or simple cesspits. However, in densely populated areas such as Valletta and the Three Cities, overcrowding created major problems. Early sewer systems combined stormwater, street washing water, and human waste, which flowed directly into the surrounding harbours. In winter, rain helped flush these systems, but in the long dry months, foul smells became a constant issue.

Royal Naval Hospital – Proposed Alteration of Drainage System to Connect with Civil Government Main Sewer. Source: https://arkivji.org.mt/

 

For many years, untreated sewage from Valletta and the Three Cities was discharged into the Grand Harbour. Seawater was even used to flush the system, first through wind-powered mechanisms and later with pumps. Houses were connected to short drains leading directly into creeks, before these were eventually replaced by larger outfalls such as the one at St Rocco. Some of Valletta’s old underground sewer tunnels still exist today, now used for modern infrastructure like data cables. Even in more recent times, untreated sewage was discharged into places like Anchor Bay until as late as 2007. At the same time, pollution from human activity, including manure from animal husbandry, continued to affect groundwater quality.

Laying of Sewers 1903: Source: https://arkivji.org.mt/

Fgura sewer tunnels. Source: Daniel Cilia, timesofmalta.com

Modern sewage treatment brought significant improvements. Today, Malta and Gozo are served by major treatment plants at Ras il-Ħobż, Ta’ Barkat, Ic-Cumnija, and Sant’ Antnin in the south. By 2020, around 67 million litres of sewage were being treated every day, over 24 billion litres each year, through a network of more than 1,500 kilometres of pipes and over 100 pumping stations, all managed by the Water Services Corporation.

The urban wastewater treatment plant at Ta’ Barkat. Source: WSC, timesofmalta.com

Malta’s water insecurity is deeply rooted in its geography. Rainfall patterns are changing. Recent decades have seen a noticeable decline in rainfall, with several years of severe drought, including one of the driest periods on record in 2023–2024. These trends point towards increasingly arid conditions, placing further strain on water resources and agriculture.

Groundwater stored in aquifers remains the only natural freshwater source, while the rest must be produced through energy-intensive desalination. Yet this high-quality water is used for all purposes, including flushing toilets, raising questions about efficiency and sustainability. Meanwhile, illegal boreholes continue to extract groundwater without proper control, and increasing urbanisation and construction reduce the land available for rainwater to soak into the ground.

Water extracted from a borehole. Source: Ray Attard, maltatoday.com.mt

It is estimated that around 70% of Malta is under water stress, while approximately 90% of the groundwater extracted does not meet European standards due to high nitrate levels. At the same time, traditional practices such as rainwater harvesting are often neglected. Although collecting rainwater in wells has long been a legal (but unenforced) obligation, much of today’s rainfall is lost as it runs off roads and into the sewage system, wasting a valuable resource and placing additional pressure on infrastructure.

New risks also remain. Environmental threats such as oil spills at sea (we only have to look at the recent threat posed by the Russian Tanker, the Arctic Metagaz) could have serious consequences for Malta’s water supply, while unprecedented population growth due to immigration, an explosion in tourism numbers, and increasing demand continue to place strain on limited resources. Efforts at European level, are now focusing on building water resilience strategies to address these challenges.

The Russian Tanker, the Arctic Metagaz, hit by a drone missile and floating in the Mediterranean close to Malta. Source: www.maltatoday.com.mt

At the same time, there is a renewed appreciation of Malta’s past. Projects such as the Alter Aqua Reservoir Trail highlight historic underground reservoirs in Birgu, while the Fawwara Aqueduct itself has been recognised for its historical importance with Grade 2 protection in 2025. These reminders of earlier practices show that while technology has advanced, the need to value, conserve, and carefully manage water remains as important as ever.

Follow the Alteraqua trail here on You Tube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zV5tSBC-5ac

 

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Peresso, V. (2026) ‘Water Fountains in Malta in 1858’, Historical Research Sharing Activity. Available at: https://www.facebook.com/100063500412470/posts/water-fountains-in-malta-in-1858in-december-1858-a-request-for-the-repair-of-the/2561425253958348/ (Accessed: April 2026).

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