Carnival revelry at Rome in the mid-17th century.

Carnival has always been a time of colour, fun, and excitement. Traditionally, it takes place during the last few days before Lent, the 40-day period of reflection leading up to Good Friday and Easter. Originally, Catholics were not permitted to eat meat during Lent, so a festive period was created just before it began. The word Carnival itself comes from the Latin carne levare, meaning ‘to put away meat.’ Because Lent was meant to be a serious and quiet time, people made the most of carnival as a final chance to enjoy themselves before the fasting and prayers began.

Although many people think carnival in Malta is a modern tradition, it is actually very old. Carnival celebrations had already existed in Europe for centuries, and they could have reached the Maltese Islands during the medieval period. Historical records show that some form of carnival was being celebrated in Malta as early as the year 1400. Maltese Carnival Day, known as jum ir-Rfugħ was a day of merriment before Lent began, with masked celebrations, joking, and costumed fun. Not everyone approved of these noisy events, but they slowly became part of Maltese life. Even though these early historical documents do not describe the celebrations in detail, they still give us interesting clues. For example, the local administration in Mdina strictly controlled the price of meat during carnival to stop sellers from taking advantage of the high demand. At the Santo Spirito Hospital in Rabat, patients were treated to special meals during carnival. Instead of their usual simple food of bread, oil, and beans, they were given veal, cheese, pasta, and wine to mark the festive season.

The festivities were amped up after the arrival of the Knights of St John in 1530, who settled in Vittoriosa (Birgu). They strengthened and expanded the celebrations, turning carnival into a much bigger and more organised event. In 1535, Grand Master Pierino di Ponte officially boosted carnival by introducing three full days of festivities. These were known in Maltese as ‘tlitt ijiem tal-Karnival’ (the three days of carnival) nor jokingly as “jiem il-bluha,” the mad days of fun. One of the earliest detailed descriptions of carnival in Cottonera comes from the historian Giacomo Bosio. He wrote that during the carnival of 1535; the Knights held a jousting tournament in Birgu. Knights in armour, carrying lances and rapiers, joined in the festivities alongside masked revellers. However, the behaviour became so wild and unruly that Grand Master di Ponte strongly criticised the Knights, calling their actions irresponsible and inappropriate. By the mid-1500s, public masquerades, tournaments, and lively street celebrations had become common.

From then on, carnival grew in popularity among all parts of society. In 1560, Grand Master Jean Parisot de Valette even allowed the wearing of masks in public during the carnival period, something that was normally forbidden in Malta for the rest of the year. The Knights decorated the ships of the Order’s fleet in the Grand Harbour, and there was music, dancing, and excitement in Birgu like never before. Many historians believe this may have inspired the later tradition of carnival floats.

However, de Valette soon felt that the celebrations were getting out of control. Large numbers of masked revellers were invited to celebrate Carnival on board the decorated vessels, and when bad weather struck, many people were left stuck in the harbour. The Grand Master was not amused and had to reprimand his Knights for going too far with their festivities. Also anchored in the Grand Harbour, was a Christian Armada waiting to set sail to attack Tripoli, but bad weather and illness delayed the expedition. Frustrated by the long wait, the Genoese Grand Admiral Doria allowed his sailors to go ashore and enjoy themselves while they were held up.

Carnival celebrations traditionally begin with a lively dance known as ‘il-Parata.’ This custom dates back to the time of the Knights of St John and is one of the oldest carnival traditions that has survived right up to the present day. The celebrations kicked off in an area known as “Il-Ballet,” near the Auberge of Italy, in Birgu.

When the Knights moved their capital across the Grand Harbour, people and groups of dancers would gather in St George’s Square in Valletta, in front of the Grand Master’s Palace. Everyone waited eagerly for the official reading of the bandu from the palace balcony, which gave formal permission for carnival to begin. As soon as the announcement was made, the festivities would burst into life. The dancers, often dressed as Knights and Ottoman soldiers, would perform a mock battle as part of the Parata. This colourful performance was meant to recreate scenes from the Great Siege of 1565 and to celebrate Malta’s famous victory.

The dancers taking part in the Parata and during the rest of the festivities were known as ‘battiti’ mentioned in a January 1772 contract in the Notarial Archives between Thomaso Borg, Antonio Balzan and several others. Historian Vicki Ann Cremona explains that the word battiti is a unique term in Maltese history. From the description, it seems to have been a traditional Carnival dance performed by a group of ten men led by a maestro or conductor.

During the dance, the performers acted out a mock fight using wooden swords. The main action was known as ‘fare il battiti’ which probably referred to the sound made when the swords were struck together. The contract stated that the dancers needed an official licence for every day they performed during Carnival. If a dancer failed to turn up, he had to pay a fine of 5 scudi, which was then shared equally among the others.

It also explained how the money earned from performances was to be divided. All earnings were shared equally between the dancers. However, the maestro of the group, Tommaso Borg from Siġġiewi, was responsible for managing the finances and was called the group’s banco. Each dancer had to give him six tareni, meaning he earned double what the other dancers earned. In addition, the maestro received two extra shares of the earnings for his efforts. Besides Valletta, Carnival was also celebrated in the towns of Floriana, Vittoriosa, Qormi and Ħaż-Żebbuġ.

Over the years, several Grand Masters tried to control carnival celebrations by enforcing strict rules. Masked revellers were forbidden from carrying anything that could be used as a weapon, and masks were not allowed to be worn after dark. Women were not permitted to wear revealing costumes, and slaves were completely banned from dressing up. Breaking these rules could lead to harsh punishments, including public flogging or even being sentenced to row on the Order’s galleys.

In 1639, Grand Master Giovanni Paolo Lascaris issued a bando, or official order, banning women from wearing masks and from attending balls organised by the Knights’ auberges. Any woman who disobeyed risked being publicly whipped. Another order forbade anyone from wearing a costume representing the devil.

These new rules were very unpopular. Many people blamed the Jesuit Father Cassia, who was the Grand Master’s confessor, for influencing Lascaris to impose such strict measures. Some young Knights decided to make fun of the Jesuits. One man dressed as a Jesuit with insulting words written on his back, while four others dressed as ruffians pretended to beat him in public as a joke.

The prank caused serious trouble. The Grand Master ordered the arrest of the Knight Girolamo Selvatico, who was believed to have organised the satire. This led to unrest among the Knights, and the Jesuit college was even attacked and ransacked. Eventually Lascaris closed the Jesuit church for a time to calm the situation. From this period comes the Maltese expression “Wiċċ Laskri”, meaning “Lascaris’ face”, which is still used today to describe someone who looks nervous or worried (or a ‘kill joy’).

Carnival celebrations were also affected by events within the Order itself. On 27 February 1664, the Inquisitor Galeazzo Marescotti reported that carnival that year was much quieter than usual, because the Knights were still mourning the recent death of Grand Master Raphael Cotoner.

In 1702, a comedy performance was staged by Italian knights at the palace of Viani, the General of the Galleys, in Vittoriosa, whilst in 1713, we first come across a written reference to the qarċilla, which was a mock, satirical wedding acted out during carnival, though this custom probably existed much earlier. The Carnival of 1719 was an especially lively and dramatic year. Thanks to fine weather, huge numbers of people in masks filled the streets of Valletta. The elderly and unwell Grand Master Perellos appeared on the palace balcony, much to the delight of the revellers.

Most of the celebrations passed peacefully, but there were a few incidents. In Senglea, two priests got into a serious fight, and one of them was badly injured. Later, the manager of a theatre company was attacked and beaten by a group of knights on his way home after a comedy performance, because the same play had already been repeated twenty times.

The prizes were often hams, sausages, and sometimes even live animals. Crowds would gather in St George’s Square to watch the competition, which was both exciting and very funny. However, the event could also lead to violence with people in the crowd jostling to grab some of the falling victuals. Guards had to be stationed around the area to keep order and to stop people from trying to steal the prizes before the event began. The kukkanja became a popular part of carnival celebrations and is still occasionally held today. In fact, during restoration works in St George’s Square some years ago, workers discovered an old stone block with a circular hole, believed to be the original base used to hold the kukkanja pole.

The 1729 Carnival, organised to mark the birth of the French dauphin, was full of excitement. There was a grand fireworks machine in Palace Square, a staged sea battle, and even fountains flowing with wine in Valletta’s main public areas. Carnival entertainment was not limited to the streets, it also extended to the theatre. In 1735, operas were performed in the public theatre, including Il Demetrio and Artaserse. At the same time, comedy performances were held in Vittoriosa.

Ten years later, in 1745, the programme included a French comedy and public balls. Two moral tragedies were also staged in the convents of the Dominican friars in Valletta and Vittoriosa.

Carnival Under British Rule

When Malta came under British rule at the start of the 19th century, carnival entered a more difficult period. The new rulers did not share the same traditions as the Maltese people, and carnival was not part of British culture. Because of this, official support for the festivities slowly weakened. Even so, the people of Cottonera and the rest of Malta were determined to keep their beloved celebration alive.

In 1819, SS Wilson, a Methodist minister, wrote about what he saw during Carnival in Malta. He explained that the celebrations began on Saturday with the sounding of trumpets. Among all the fun and excitement, one scene especially caught his attention. A small group of people were carrying a man on their shoulders pretending to be a dead body. His face was covered with ashes to make him look more like a corpse, and around him walked fake funeral mourners, known as bekkejja. There was also jousting

A few years later, in February 1827, another visitor, Andrew Bigelow, an American Unitarian minister, also described Carnival in Malta. He saw people dressed in many different costumes, including harlequins, clowns, buffoons, satyrs, and even characters such as the ‘knave of hearts.’ Some people painted their faces black to imitate Africans and Turks.

Bigelow noticed that many costumes involved role reversals. Some women dressed as soldiers or sailors, young people dressed as old men, and older people wore clothes to make themselves look younger. He also saw a person dressed in a Louis XIV costume and a boy wearing a full Scottish outfit, complete with a kilt.

He wrote that Carnival balls were held every evening, starting at 8:00 pm and lasting until 2:00 am. Bigelow was also surprised to see that on the Sunday after Carnival, many people crossed the Grand Harbour by boat to go on pilgrimage to Żabbar. They visited the church of Our Lady of Graces to make up for the ‘sins’ they believed they had committed during the Carnival celebrations.

Brillante Mascherata, a coloured lithograph by Pietro Paolo Caruana, found at MUŻA – Malta National Community Art Museum, Valletta. Photo Courtesy of Heritage Malta via timesofmalta.com

Ta’ Ġieżu Church. Source: flyingfourchette.com

That year, however, things went badly wrong. The service finished later than planned, and the children reached the convent at the same time that carnival celebrations were ending. Large numbers of adults, hoping to get free food for themselves, mixed in with the boys as they entered the building.

The crowd was directed through a narrow corridor inside the convent. To stop people from going back in for more food, the doors were closed behind them. In the confusion, pushing and shoving began. A lamp was knocked over, leaving the passage in complete darkness. Panic spread quickly, and those at the front fell down steps near the exit, blocking the way out. In the terrible crush that followed, 110 boys lost their lives. An investigation later concluded that poor organisation and a series of mistakes had led to this heartbreaking disaster.

Despite these setbacks, carnival never disappeared. In 1921 Malta was granted a new constitution, and this brought fresh energy to public life. Soon after, a special committee was set up to organise carnival more professionally. This helped to bring back colourful parades, creative costumes, and lively competitions, gradually shaping the modern carnival we recognise today. Grotesque papier-mâché figures and elaborate floats appeared, often headed by the Re tal-Karnival, the King of Carnival. Dance groups known as the komittiva performed on huge mechanical floats and threw sugared almonds, perlini tal-lewż, to the cheering crowds. Children packed the streets to watch the masked dancers and marching bands. Valletta cafés proudly displayed the famous prinjolata, a dome-shaped carnival sweet made of sponge cake, nuts, meringue, and cherries.

Prinjolata. Source: yellow.com.mt

In many villages, especially in Mellieha, farmers and country folk joined the fun with traditional instruments such as the flejguta, żummara, rabbaba, zaqq, and tambur, a tradition which is still popular in the grotesque carnival of Nadur in Gozo. People who were usually shy put on kostumi tal-Karnival and joined the dancing and joking in the streets.

The first philharmonic band to join the Carnival celebrations in Valletta in the 1860s was the ‘La Vittoriosa’ Band from Birgu. They performed together with a group called Zingarelli. In 1886, the band took part again, this time with two groups, and helped make the Carnival in Birgu even more fun and lively. Towards the turn of the century, and up until World War Two, local carnival groups such as the Żgħażagħ Vittoriosani (Vittoriosa Youths) supported and organised by the ‘Duke of Edinburgh Band Club’ in Vittoriosa participated with different themes each year in both the Birgu and Valletta carnivals.

This photograph shows the band, along with its committee members and supporters, gathered on the steps of Auberge de Castille in Valletta during the 1928 Carnival. That year, the Duke of Edinburgh Society took part with the theme of Bacchus. Source: Vittoriosa Historical & Cultural Society – Soċjetà Storiko-Kulturali

These photographs show a Carnival group known as the Żgħażagħ Vittoriosani (Vittoriosa Youths) dressed in festive costumes. One of the images dates from the 1907 Carnival, when seven young men from Birgu wore Faravanti-themed costumes, as shown by the decorative flag displayed among them. Source: Vittoriosa Historical & Cultural Society – Soċjetà Storiko-Kulturali

This photograph shows a group of nine young people dressed as the ‘Guarda d’Onore’. At the front, the decorative flag bears the inscription ‘Epoka 1565,’ referring to the period of the Great Siege, whose costumes they are wearing. The four seated youths are holding a shield and a sword, while those standing are raising swords in their hands. The crowns on their heads are topped with a half crescent. The photograph was taken in 1917, and the postcard was printed at the S. Cordina printing office in Cospicua. Alongside the image, there is a poem consisting of five stanzas

written in Italianised Maltese. Source: Vittoriosa Historical & Cultural Society – Soċjetà Storiko-Kulturali

Early 1920’s Carnival Company. Source: Vittoriosa Historical & Cultural Society – Soċjetà Storiko-Kulturali

A political satire float in the 1900 carnival targeting Augustus Bartolo. Source: timesofmalta.com

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, carnival in Malta, including in Cottonera, became famous for its sharp humour and satire. Floats and costumes were often used to make fun of politicians and unpopular government decisions. The British authorities did not always appreciate this, and in 1936 a law was passed banning political satire from carnival celebrations. This restriction remained in place for many decades and was only removed in 2013.

The British authorities did not always appreciate this, and in 1936 a law was passed banning political satire from carnival celebrations. This restriction remained in place for many decades and was only removed in 2013.

Carnival in Senglea – The Heart of Cottonera Festivities

While Valletta slowly became the official centre of carnival under British rule, the cities of Cottonera kept their own proud and lively traditions. Senglea in particular celebrated its own three-day carnival, organised for generations by a local committee. This celebration had been held “since time immemorial” and for many years it rivalled the festivities in Valletta.

Traditionally there was a clear difference between the two. Valletta’s old-time carnival was mainly aimed at members of the Order, foreign visitors, and later the British authorities and their guests. Senglea’s carnival, on the other hand, belonged to the ordinary Maltese people of the Three Cities: Birgu, Bormla, and Isla. It was more local in character, more spontaneous, and closer to the way common people liked to celebrate.

In Senglea the festivities traditionally began on Thursday morning, known as Giovedì Gras. Children were the first to announce the start of carnival. Groups of youngsters from the poorer neighbourhoods ran through the streets making as much noise as possible. Dressed in old, mismatched clothes and funny hats, with faces smeared with soot and red paste, they banged on tins with sticks and shouted joyfully: “Wi, Wi, Karnival! … Illum jibda l-Karnival!”  (“Yes, yes, Carnival! … Today Carnival begins!”)
This lively custom was seen all over Malta, but in Senglea it had a special charm and was greeted with smiles, laughter, and sometimes a bit of friendly annoyance from neighbours, as dogs barked and cats scattered in fright.

The main celebrations lasted for three full days, from Sunday until Tuesday night. During this time Senglea became a town of music, dancing, and merriment. Strada Vittoria, the city’s main street, filled with people from all over Malta who came to enjoy the unique Cottonera atmosphere. Bars and cafés did excellent business, and hawkers sold sweets and perlini to the crowds.

Perlini sugared almonds, which together with dried peas were showered on carnival revellers. Source: timesofmalta.com

Even in the middle of all this fun, religion was never forgotten. In the parish church, special Kwaranturi services were held on each of the carnival days. These prayers were meant to make up for the “sins” and excesses of carnival, which some preachers described as “dark days.” Yet outside the church doors, King Carnival ruled the streets, and most people happily joined in the celebrations.

Senglea’s layout made it perfect for carnival. Costumed groups and masked dancers would start their performances from the upper part of Strada Vittoria and dance downhill towards the wider central area, where large crowds gathered to watch. Companies in costume arrived not only from Cottonera but from many other towns and villages, eager to perform in Senglea. After entertaining the Isla crowds, many of these groups continued on to Birgu and Bormla to spread the fun there as well.

Unlike Valletta, where large official floats were becoming more common, Senglea’s carnival kept a more traditional style. There were usually only a few decorated floats. Instead, the streets were filled with colourful animal-drawn carts carrying country folk who sang traditional għana songs or performed short humorous sketches. Decorated karrozzini also entered the city with costumed passengers who delighted the public.

Music played a central role in Senglea’s celebrations. The city’s own civic band, ‘The Queen’s Own’, set up a bandstand at the lower end of Strada Vittoria and provided lively entertainment throughout the carnival days. For the occasion the band played popular jazz tunes, waltzes, mazurkas, polkas, and gallops, encouraging everyone to dance in what was, in effect, a huge open-air social party.

Each year the festivities ended with a grand final ball in the street, with hundreds of people joining in.

A Forgotten Tradition – Iż-Żifna tal-Arblu

Among the many sights and sounds of carnival in Senglea, some traditions were truly unique to the city. One of the most memorable was an old folk dance known as Iż-Żifna tal-Arblu, or the Capstan Dance.

This special performance was usually carried out by young men from the Ponta area of Senglea. Dressed as 18th-century Maltese sailors, they wore striped blue shirts, loose white cotton trousers, red sashes, and bright red headscarves. Their costumes reflected Senglea’s long connection with the sea and with the dockyard life of the harbour.

The dancers carried with them a real wooden capstan, the heavy device once used on ships to lift anchors and pull ropes. Long wooden levers were fixed to it, and as they moved from street to street they used it as the centrepiece of their dance. Four musicians accompanied them: a flute player, a fiddler, a rabbaba player, and a tambourine player. While playing their instruments, the musicians also danced and jumped, keeping a lively rhythm with their hands and elbows.

A wooden capstan. Source: Wikipedia

At the end of the performance the ‘sailors’ would raise their arms high in the air, give a loud cheer, and turn to face the applauding crowd. For many people this was one of the highlights of Senglea carnival. Sadly, this old maritime folk dance has now disappeared, but it remains an important memory of the city’s carnival heritage.

The Farewell to King Carnival

Just as carnival had a joyful beginning, it also had a very theatrical ending. Celebrations in Senglea officially came to a close late on Tuesday night. After the final open-air dancing in the lower part of Strada Vittoria, a curious and rather funny ritual took place.

Most of the local societies and clubs that organised carnival dances prepared for what was called the “funeral of Carnival.” Once the music stopped, a procession of masked revellers formed in the streets. At the front walked a person dressed as ‘Death’ complete with a black costume and a large scythe.

Behind him followed a small band known popularly as the’ Komittiva Band’ or ‘Banda ta’ Indri’. Others carried a black cardboard coffin which symbolised the end of carnival itself. The crowd moved through the streets singing and dancing to a well-known Maltese tune, pretending to mourn the passing of King Carnival.

This mock funeral was all done in good humour, but it reminded everyone that the days of fun were over and that Lent was about to begin. After three days of laughter, music, and costumes, Senglea slowly returned to its normal, quieter life.

Death of Carnival by G. Lanfranco