EATING TO STAY ALIVE DURING WORLD WAR II

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EATING TO STAY ALIVE DURING WORLD WAR II

There are two ways to win a war. Bomb your enemy into oblivion or starve them into surrender.

During World War II, starvation and malnutrition caused the deaths of nearly 20 million people worldwide. In Malta, survival became a daily battle, as the island had always relied heavily on imported food, especially wheat and grains, to feed its 260,000 residents. When war broke out, Malta’s main supplier, Sicily, became the enemy. Food had to be transported on convoys of ships constantly under attack below waters by mines and torpedoes and from gunfire and bombs raining down on them from above.

The situation quickly became desperate. Food was salvaged from burning ships in the Grand Harbour. Local farms could only produce enough food for a third of the population, and the price of basic goods skyrocketed. Most able-bodied men were called to arms, leaving farms understaffed.

Food shortages led to frayed tempers, fights in workplaces, and long queues at Victory Kitchens, where people waited for small portions of watery soup and rioted when green goat liver was served. Empty bellies caused severe weight loss, exhaustion, poor health, and the spread of diseases. Livestock and even babies did not survive the harsh conditions. People began hoarding supplies. Shopkeepers, particularly grocers, saw their shelves emptied almost instantly. In the evacuated areas of Cottonera, shops selling essential goods had to close because it was becoming too difficult to replenish their stock. Housewives rushed to fill pillowcases and boxes with sugar, soap, matches, and tinned milk.

Others turned to the black market, trading their gold, watches, and even zinc bathtubs to get their hands on goods being sold at inflated prices. Mothers skipped meals to feed their crying children, while some families were forced to dig through trash for scraps or buy leftover food from soldiers’ plates.

Food salvaged from burning ships in the Grand Harbour.

Victory Street, Isla after a bombing blitz

Carob Pods

The gap between rich and poor grew wider, as did the gap between those who lived in the countryside and those in the harbour areas. And those with large families suffered the most. Wealthier people could afford black-market prices,whilst poor people bartered food with their produce or other rationed items such as cigarettes and clothes. Resilient for centuries, the Maltese relied on creative solutions to stave off hunger. Coffee was made from chicory and dandelion, and munching on carob pods kept hunger pangs at bay. Bread was baked with unusual flours, and powdered milk and eggs replaced fresh ingredients.

During World War II, people living in Malta’s harbour towns and those working with the British forces were exposed to a wider variety of foods, often adopting the eating habits of their British counterparts. People who worked in the Army, NAAFI (navy, army & airforce institutes), Victory kitchens, or the Dockyards had better access to food, either through their work rations or what they managed to sneak. Workers would come home with chocolate, corned beef, beer, bread, cheese, sweets, and crackers. One example of this was the Air Raid Precaution (ARP), a new civil service department. At the canteen in the Fra Diego Institute in Ħamrun, which served as the ARP headquarters, you could see the British influence in the menu. It offered things like: soup (meat or fish) for 1d (pence) (half portion) or 2d (full portion), pork chops, beef, and Irish stew for 6d (full portion) or 4d (half portion), with potatoes (chips, baked, or boiled) and vegetables.

However, for most of the population, the diet remained rooted in centuries-old traditions. Barley sourdough bread was a staple for the lower classes, often eaten with olive oil, olives, onions, and occasionally a hunk of goat’s cheese or salted fish. Minestra, a slow-cooked vegetable soup made with marrows, cauliflower, turnips, beans, potatoes, and a bit of pasta, was a regular evening meal. Their diet was supplemented with eggs, fresh or dried fruit, goat’s milk, and wine. Meat, such as rabbit, chicken, lamb, pork, and bird game, was reserved for special occasions like Sundays, religious festivals or weddings.

Under British colonial rule, beer became a common import or was brewed locally to cater to British soldiers. Potatoes, introduced in 1803, replaced cotton as a key cash crop. In the harbour towns, meals became richer in fats and carbohydrates, with dishes like fried eggs, bacon, and chips becoming popular. Recipes such as shepherd’s pie, beef steak, Irish stew, and trifle also made their way into local cookbooks, such as Il Chtieb tal Chcina (The Book of the Kitchen), first published in 1894 by E.L. Vella. The war years from 1940 to 1945 brought lasting changes to Maltese cuisine. Traditional sheep’s cheese (ġbejniet) started to be replaced by tinned Cheddar, Edam, and blue cheese. Butter and lard took the place of olive oil. Corned beef and mushy peas became popular fillers for pastizzi (a traditional pastry), and goat’s milk was swapped for tinned milk. Foods like baked beans and cornmeal were introduced, leaving a lasting influence on the island’s culinary traditions.

In the harbour areas, relentless air raids left people too afraid to leave shelters, even to find food. As more people crowded into public shelters, conditions worsened, leading to outbreaks of diseases like scabies, stomatitis, pellagra, and scurvy caused by malnutrition and poor hygiene. Lino Bugeja, an environmentalist and former athlete, lived in Birgu during the war. After his home was destroyed by a bomb in September 1941, his family moved into a small room carved out of rock, which he helped dig for six months.

Bombing of HMS Illustrious

WW2 Air-Raid SHELTERS, today part of the Malta at War Museum in Birgu

Food shortages were severe in 1941 and 1942, and even rationed bread couldn’t reach their shelter due to roads blocked by debris. As a child, Lino foraged in the Kalkara countryside for food scraps and swam in Kalkara Creek to collect dead fish after bombings.

At the start of World War II in 1939, strict measures were introduced to conserve resources. To preserve livestock, the slaughter of female cows and young cattle under nine months was banned. Public gardens and spaces like the Marsa Sports Grounds were ploughed by convict labour to grow vegetables, potatoes, and animal fodder. Onion crops, previously a major export, were limited, and public wells across Valletta and villages were repaired to ensure water access.

Malta’s livestock industry relied heavily on 58,000 tons of imported fodder, but wartime shortages forced farmers to grow fodder plants like sulla, reducing the land available for wheat. By 1941, the fodder shortage became critical, leading to a scarcity of meat, eggs, and milk. Goat milk production fell by 23%, increasing its demand as meat and eggs became harder to find.

To address the crisis, farmers with more than five tumoli of land were required to dedicate half of it to cereal production. The government managed wheat threshing, allowing farmers to keep only enough grain for seeding. This step prevented farmers from turning seeds into flour for profit.

In July 1941, the Cereal Collection Scheme was launched, ensuring the local wheat crop was directed to the communal granary instead of private use. From May 1942, selling grain was prohibited, and village flour mills were closed. Farmers had to deliver their wheat to village squares on a set schedule, with the government offering attractive prices—£14 for each quarter of wheat and £8 for barley and meslin—to encourage compliance. To reduce reliance on wheat, the government turned to potatoes. In January 1941, 2,600 tons of potato seeds were imported, leading to a successful harvest. A government order (Notice No. 344) required bakers to mix at least 20% cooked, peeled, and pureed potatoes into their bread dough, creating a type of bread called ‘wheatato.’ This innovation saved around 1,000 tons of flour, and daily potato rations were increased from 10 to 14 ounces.

The winter of 1941-1942, remembered as the “Black Winter,” was one of the coldest and wettest in years. Amid non-stop bombings and shortages, King George VI awarded the George Cross to Malta on April 15, 1942. Some locals sarcastically called it the ‘Ġuħ Cross’ (‘Hunger Cross’). A frustrated worker even penned a letter to the press titled, ‘Tawna Salib u Mhux Ħalib’ (‘They gave us a cross, not milk’).

Rationing

Rationing began on April 7, 1941, starting with sugar, coffee, matches, and soap. Rations were issued on the sixth and 21st day of every month. By May, kerosene was rationed weekly, followed by edible oil, lard, and margarine in August. Rice and tomato paste were added in April 1942, and bread rationing began on May 5th. Families received ration books based on their size, income, and children’s ages, ensuring fair distribution. The Food Distribution Office issued permits to grocers and managed the process. Bread was rationed by weight: men received “kwart u nofs,” women “nofs artal,” and children “kwart.” Long queues outside groceries became a common sight as people clung to their ration booklets.

Unloading precious cargo

The ‘Gaxin’

‘Gaxin’ referred to food scraps and leftovers from British military messes, sold wrapped in newspapers for a shilling. These scraps included bits of meat, bacon rinds, bread, potatoes, and vegetables, often mixed with cigarette butts and bits of paper. Contractors, mainly in areas near the Grand Harbour like Bormla, collected and sold the edible portions, earning significant profits. At its peak, contracts for selling gaxin fetched hundreds of pounds. This practice, which began during the war, continued into the late 1950s, providing sustenance to poorer families in urban areas such as Cottonera.

Black Market

Unrationed goods were hard to find in stores but widely available on the black market. Eggs, a key source of protein, were especially in demand. Egypt supplied Malta with much of the eggs that were not covered by the local supply. However, during the war, shortages of chicken feed and food in general between 1941 and 1943 led to the excessive slaughter of poultry. With fewer hens and disrupted imports, egg prices soared to as much as 30 shillings per dozen—a fortune when most people earned only two pounds a week. The government introduced rationed egg powder as a substitute, but it was unpopular. Officially, eggs were priced at 6d (six pence), but on the black market, a single egg could cost two shillings and six pence (one shilling = twelve pence).

Farmers in Gozo, who were more self-sufficient, profited by selling produce to hungry Maltese. Contraband between Malta and Gozo was rampant, with farmers often demanding payment in gold. Bishop Mikiel Gonzi of Gozo had to persuade farmers to share their stockpiled wheat and vegetables with the starving Maltese. People from Cottonera and other villages cycled long distances to Rabat and Mosta to buy eggs, potatoes, or flour on the black market.

Bishop Mikiel Gonzi of Gozo

Victory Kitchen

Salvation

Santa Maria Convoy

Victory Kitchens were set up across Malta, including in Cottonera, to provide meals for the homeless and those willing to subscribe. Subscribers could pay six pence for a meat or vegetable stew or three pence for a minestrone, or they could exchange part of their ration. Initially, few subscribed—only 269 people in January 1942—but by June, the number had risen to 7,000. Abuse of meal coupons was strictly punished, including imprisonment.

Goat meat (considered an un-economic unit by the British) featured heavily on the menu, served five times a week as part of a policy to slaughter goats to conserve fodder. The Times of Malta reported on August 28, 1942, that the weekly Victory Kitchen menu included:

Sunday: Stewed meat with tomatoes and baked peas
Monday: Macaroni with cheese and tomatoes
Tuesday: Balbuljata (a Maltese egg and tomato dish)
Wednesday: Minestra (vegetable soup)
Thursday: Stewed meat with tomatoes and peas
Friday: Minestra
Saturday: Macaroni with cheese and tomatoes

The kitchens were closed in September 1943 as food supplies and fuel improved, and individual consumption goals were met.

On August 15, 1942, the Feast of the Assumption, the Pedestal Convoy, staggered into Malta’s Grand Harbour. Though it lost 9 of its 14 merchant vessels during the journey, the supplies it carried were enough to lift the Second Great Siege of Malta, saving the island from starvation and surrender.

Written with reference to:

‘Agriculture and Peasant Politics in Wartime Malta, 1939-1945’ by James Baldacchino. Master of Arts in History dissertation, University of Malta, 2021.
‘When Hell was an Air Raid Shelter’ by Lino Bugeja. Accessed January 2025: https://timesofmalta.com/article/When-hell-was-an-air-raid-shelter.602417
‘Agriculture in Malta: A Historical Note’ by S. Busuttil. In: Busuttil S. (ed.), Lerin F. (ed.), Mizzi L.(ed.). Malta: Food, agriculture, fisheries and the environment. Montpellier : CIHEAM, 1993. p. 9 -2 6 (Options Méditerranéennes: Série B. Etudes et Recherches; n .7).
‘When Hell was an Air Raid Shelter’ by Lino Bugeja. Accessed January 2025: https://timesofmalta.com/article/When-hell-was-an-air-raid-shelter.602417
‘British Colonial Malta: A Melting Pot of Culinary Diets (1800-1900)’ by Dr Noel Buttigieg & Prof. George Cassar. Biennial Report, January 2018 to December 2019, Institute for Tourism, Travel and Culture, University of Malta, 2020.
‘Food under Siege: A Historical Sociology Exploration into Food and Hunger during World War II and its Effect on the Maltese Population’ by Mariella Farrugia, Masters in Education dissertation, University of Malta, 2013.
‘Storja tal-Kultura ta’ l-Ikel f’Malta’ by Kenneth Gambin and Noel Buttiġieġ (Malta, PIN Publications, 2003).
‘Feeding the Besieged: Food Supply and Shortages during the Siege of Malta, 1940 – 1942’ by Horace Grazio Vella. B.A. (Honours) History undergradutate dissertation. University of Malta, 2016
‘Food of the Rock’ Roll Generation’ by Vanessa Mifsud. Master Chef Diploma, University of Malta, Institute for Tourism, Travel & Culture, 2018.
‘Malta During World War II, Vittoriosa Under Blitz’ by Lawrence Zahra. Heritage: an Encyclopedia of Maltese Culture and Civilization, 66, 1297-1300.