Tobacco and Slavery

Despite the resistance, tobacco quickly became a global business in the 1600s and 1700s, just like sugar and spices. Sadly, a lot of this economic growth came at a terrible human cost: the transatlantic slave trade. Enslaved people in the Americas were forced to work on tobacco plantations under brutal conditions. Malta was not untouched by this darker side of tobacco history. In the 17th and 18th centuries, between 2,000 and 2,500 enslaved people lived in Malta. Many were Moors, Turks, Jews, and Africans. Some worked on land in construction and maintenance, while others were chained to rowing benches on galleys, often for up to twelve hours a day. To deal with the horrible smells in the ship’s lower decks, some used tobacco to block the stench.

‘The Galley Slaves’ by Álvarez Dumont, César. Prado.

Tobacco Trade and Regulation

Tobacco became a prized product in Malta starting in the early 1600s. It was sometimes grown locally, along with cotton, but not in large amounts. Cottonera, with its busy harbours and strong links to sea trade, naturally became a centre for buying, selling, and using tobacco. In 1636, a Senglea resident named Carlo Bartolo described himself as a ‘tobacco retailer’, one of the earliest known people in Malta’s tobacco history. A few years later, in 1642, a Venetian pirate demanded compensation (money) after a Maltese pirate seized his tobacco cargo, showing just how valuable tobacco had become.

Malta got most of its tobacco from mainland Greece and the nearby Greek islands. The Università of Malta, a powerful public authority at the time, controlled tobacco importation alongside essentials like grain. In the early 1670s, Grand Master Nicolás Cotoner of Spain began changing Malta’s tax system, hoping that taxing tobacco would help fund the construction of the Cottonera Lines (an extensive system of fortifications). His successor, Grand Master Gregorio Carafa from Italy, made these changes official on 12 September 1680 through a set of rules called the Prammatiche. These rules revised taxes on everyday items such as grain, salt, wine, soap, leather, paper, coffee, tuna fishing, and of course, tobacco. To sidestep strict municipal regulations, a few tobacco traders in Cottonera got clever and registered under the Inquisition’s jurisdiction instead of the local authorities.

In 1732, Grand Master Chambray, ordered around 200,000 clay smoking pipes to be made because there were rumors of a Turkish attack. He also ordered a large amount of tobacco to go with them. The attack never happened, but this shows how important smoking was to the soldiers, almost as important as their weapons. The Grand Master probably didn’t want the soldiers to go through withdrawal, or feel sick from not smoking, if they were trapped in a siege. Some people even think that soldiers might have been allowed to smoke hashish, a drug made from cannabis, to help them feel braver before going into battle. Tobacco could easily be bought from local shops. On August 27th, 1764, a special license was granted to a woman named Maria Pace, a shopkeeper in Città Pinto (now known as Qormi). This license allowed her to sell a variety of items, including all kinds of aromatic substances, whether natural or mixed, along with a wine-and-water solution known as aqua vitae, powdered or leaf tobacco, honey, and both hard and soft soap.

In 1779, towards the end of the Knights’ rule of Malta, tobacco was one of only two products that were not liberalised by the Treasury, showing just how important it was for government revenue.

Tobacco Pipes

By the mid-1600s, smoking had become very common across Malta. But the Order of St John actually banned smoking on their ships because it was too risky, fires could easily break out. Most people used clay pipes with rounded bowls, and many of these were brought in from the Aegean port of Smyrna (now Izmir, Turkey). Although pipe-making in Malta was never a major industry, the towns of Mdina and Żejtun were known for producing clay smoking pipes on a small scale. Local potters who mainly made household items would occasionally craft pipes when requested. In the Marsa harbour area, a more formal operation existed; the British Empire Pipe Company, which manufactured pipes from briar and olive wood.

Today, this company is known as Briar Pipe Works Limited and is still in business. According to the current directors, most clay pipes used in Malta were likely imported. Archaeologists have found pipe fragments at many important sites, proving how common smoking was in Maltese life. These include Fort Rinella in Kalkara, the Auberge de Castille in Valletta, the Inquisitor’s Palace, and Dockyard Creek. In Bormla, discoveries on St Lazarus Street and near Fort St Angelo turned up 19th-century clay and terracotta tobacco pipes, giving us a window into everyday life in Cottonera.

One especially fascinating discovery was made during restoration at Fort St. Angelo’s naval cinema in 2015. Inside a wall, workers found a full clay pipe, still packed with tobacco, alongside a matchbox wrapped in a newspaper dated 3rd March 1920 and a handwritten note dated 19th April 1920. The note, written by a stonemason, explained that he had hidden the pipe on purpose, hoping someone in the future would find it, a kind of personal time capsule.

Cigars, Snuff, and Social Class

In the 1800s, pipe smoking began to fade, and cigars became more popular, especially among the upper class. Another product, snuff (which was sniffed rather than smoked), stayed in fashion with the wealthy. In the Enlightenment era, people believed the nose was linked to the brain and intellect, so snuff was seen as refined and smart. Snuff boxes became luxury items. In 1864, one was worth £20, while a tobacco-cutting machine cost just £4. This price difference showed how snuff was tied to wealth and class. Meanwhile, the working class usually stuck to pipe smoking, which was cheaper and sometimes helped to suppress hunger, an essential benefit during hard times when food was scarce.

Tobacco in Malta: Industry, Innovation, and Everyday Life

When Malta became a British Crown Colony in the 1800s, things began to change. The old monopoly system was replaced, and although tobacco farming was small, it helped replace the cotton industry, which was starting to decline. Cigar making became more popular, and Maltese cigars were sold across the Mediterranean.

Cigarettes, however, were not well known in English-speaking countries until the Crimean War (1854–1856). During the war, French and British soldiers began rolling their own cigarettes, a habit that later became common in Malta too. According to author Herbert Ganado in Rajt Malta Tinbidel, wounded soldiers arriving in Malta from the war front were greeted with cigarettes and chocolate, a sign of how widespread tobacco use had become.

Even earlier, the English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, who lived in Malta between 1804 and 1806, noted that the island’s economy depended on crops like cotton and tobacco. In the nineteenth century, the shipping registers in Il Mediterraneo and Lloyd Maltese show that Malta regularly received shipments of smoking pipes from countries like Turkey, Egypt, France, Italy, and the UK.

Most of the tobacco Malta used was imported, especially from Greece, Macedonia, and Turkey. It came in large wooden barrels called hogsheads and was stored in government-controlled warehouses (bonds) before being sent to local producers. There were two main types of tobacco:

• Unprocessed leaf tobacco, often used to wrap cigars.

• Manufactured (shredded) tobacco, used in cigarette and cigar making.

Because Malta was a major trading port (entrepôt), it often acted as a hub for goods passing through. Tobacco was stored tax-free until it was either manufactured or re-exported. This made the island attractive to traders, but also led to smuggling and tax evasion. Sailors were often suspected of sneaking tobacco ashore and selling it cheaply and illegally. In 1836, a British Royal Commission suggested removing taxes on essential items like tobacco. But duties were reintroduced in 1901, and by 1911, tobacco was bringing in £13,692 a year, a hefty sum for the Maltese colonial government. According to Baron Azopardi, tobacco was being grown even before British rule, dating back to the time of the Knights of St John. In 1847, he encouraged members of the Agrarian Society to invest in tobacco farming, saying it had strong potential. By 1861, over 1,850 people were working in Malta’s tobacco industry.

A large number came from the Cottonera area: 595 from Vittoriosa, 534 from Senglea, and 444 from Cospicua. But fifty years later, due to changes in technology and the economy, that number had dropped to just 587. Maltese businesses played an important role in shaping the industry. One success story was Callus & Figli, founded in Valletta in 1870. They turned a loan for importing cigars into profits of more than £50,000 over 30 years. In the 1880s, Malta saw a shift from small home-based tobacco work to factory-based cigarette production. Between 1880 and 1914, many new factories opened. Companies like C. Colombos, A.G. Cousis, and British American Tobacco became key players. New machines changed how tobacco was made, allowing work to move from scattered homes and warehouses to centralised factories. This also shifted power from merchants to industrialists.

Women were heavily involved in the tobacco industry, especially in making cigars. The 1881 census shows many workers were older women, 75 of them were over 76, and 48 were between 65 and 75. This reflected the tough economic times and the need for women to earn a living. In 1886, cigar workers earned 8 pence per day. By 1925, experienced workers could roll up to 2,000 cigarettes in a 10-hour shift. However, by the 1920s, men began to outnumber women in factories, at a ratio of 3 to 1. It wasn’t until around 1948, after World War II, that gender equality in the workplace began to improve, though there was early resistance from male-dominated unions and the Church.

A big reason cigarettes became so popular was technology. In 1880, James Albert Bonsack invented a machine that could roll cigarettes automatically. This invention made cigarettes cheaper and more widely available, helping launch the global cigarette boom of the 20th century. Another important figure was Robert Gloag, who helped create one of the first paper-wrapped cigarettes. His early designs helped shape the cigarette industry into what it would become.

Tobacco Business in Malta: From Shops to Cigarette Cards

On 7th September 1888, a Welsh trading company called Margrave Brothers from Llanelli asked the Maltese government for a list of tobacco and cigar makers and sellers on the island. The Chief Secretary passed this on to the Camera del Commercio (Chamber of Commerce), which responded with a full list of businesses.

Cigar and cigarette retailers (Negozianti di sigari e sigarette):

• P&L Fratelli Mifsud
• Charles Breed Eynaud
• Galea and Mifsud
• Raffaele Ferro & Co

Cigar manufacturers (Fabricanti di Sigari):

• Franklin Manufactory
• Gaetani/eoGrech & Co
• Antonio Callus
• Michele Callus
• Salvatore Mercieca
• Paolo Camilleri

Cigarette manufacturers (Fabricanti di sigarette):

• Turnbull Jun.r & Sommerville
• A.G. Cousis & Co
• Fratelli Mimmi
• P.P. Borg
• Michael Borg
• Vincenzo Mariah & Co
• Costantino Columbus
• Fratelli Caridachi

At first, G. Petrococchino was also listed, but this was later corrected and replaced with The Hercules Egyptian Company.

Cottonera, and specifically Cospicua, played a significant role in Malta’s tobacco trade. Among those listed, Antonio and Michele Callus operated both a cigar factory and a retail outlet in Cospicua, near the Convent of the Discalced Carmelites. The Callus family also sold alcohol, reflecting a common business model of the time. A relative, Captain A. Caruana, also from Cospicua, began in similar fashion, running a small shop selling tobacco and alcohol. Following early success, Caruana expanded his business by opening a second outlet in Valletta’s Kingsway (now Republic Street).

But not everyone approved. Some cards, especially those showing women, caused a stir. In 1902, Bishop Pietru Pace called them a “diabolical art” that was corrupting people’s morals. One major scandal happened in 1924, when the Atlam company, owned by Malta’s first Prime Minister, Joseph Howard, released a card showing actress Rina De Liguoro with part of her chest exposed. It was quickly pulled from stores to avoid political damage. Despite the criticism, cigarette cards remained a popular marketing tool and a part of Maltese pop culture for decades.

Early Cigarette Companies Before 1914:

• C. Colombos
• Condachi Brothers & Co. (Valletta)
• A.G. Cousis & Co. (Cairo and Malta)
• The Egyptian Cigarette Company
• Malta Cigarette Co.
• Pizzuto
• G. Sclivagnotis

By the 1920s, new companies included:

• Atlam Cigarette Factory
• Nicola Bosios
• V. Camilleri (Valletta)
• Camler Tobacco Company (Valletta)
• S. Mattino & Sons
• Mifsud & Azzopardi
• Omega Cigarette Factory
• Oxford Cigarette Co. (Valletta)
• Ruggier Brothers
• John Scerri
• G. Agius & Co. (Malta and Cairo)
• Farro
• Tysoo Cigarette Company

Trademark Disputes and the Rise of Cigarettes in Malta

In the late 19th century, Malta lacked trademark protections, making it a haven for imitation products. A notable case occurred in 1902, when the London-based firm Wallis Brock & Co. filed a complaint with the British Governor of Malta after unregistered Flor de Dindigul Indian cigars were found on the island. This example highlights the growing importance of trademark law as Malta’s tobacco trade became more international in scope.

By that same year, Malta was importing huge amounts of tobacco. From America alone, the island received nearly 28,000 rotoli of leaf tobacco. Turkey exported over 69,000 rotoli to Malta, while countries like Greece, Italy, Britain, and France supplied another 74,000. The island also brought in thousands of rotoli of plug tobacco, pre-cut tobacco, cigarettes, and cigars, further embedding tobacco into Malta’s economy and everyday life.

As the 20th century began, the tobacco industry was one of the most active manufacturing sectors in Malta, particularly during the interwar years when other industries lagged behind. The traditional cigar, once a symbol of prestige and masculinity, began to decline in popularity by the end of the 1800s. Cigarettes, more convenient and affordable, began to take over. In 1927, a tax was introduced on machine-made cigarettes, which unintentionally boosted handmade cigarette production. This led to a surge in employment, with the number of workers in the sector more than doubling between 1931 and 1934. By 1936, over 1,000 people were employed in tobacco manufacturing, a number that fluctuated depending on the presence of British military fleets on the island.

Meanwhile, the value of imported manufactured tobacco products such as cigars and cigarettes rose sharply, from just over £28,000 in 1928 to more than £83,000 by 1939. At the same time, imports of loose tobacco declined, showing that Maltese consumers were shifting to ready-made products. By the early 20th century, cigarettes had overtaken the traditional clay pipe in popularity, both globally and in Malta. Although smoking rates were high, local manufacturing couldn’t keep up with demand. Malta’s cigarette exports plummeted. This steep drop revealed the country’s dependence on imports, especially from the UK and the United States, and its limited capacity to scale production for export.

By the mid-1930s, tobacco was a regular expense in Maltese households. Weekly spending on tobacco averaged around one shilling and one penny, just under a quarter of what most people spent on bread, reflecting tobacco’s deep integration into everyday life, even if it wasn’t essential.

Around this same time, the Licari cigarette company emerged as a dominant force in the industry, buying out older Greek and Egyptian tobacco firms, including Cousis and Colombos. Though Licari no longer manufactures cigarettes, its legacy continues in Cottonera. The original factory in Cospicua still stands and now operates as J L Tobacco Company Ltd, located at 128, Triq Pietru Pawl Caruana in Bormla. This site remains a rare physical link to Cottonera’s industrial past and Malta’s once-flourishing tobacco trade.

Tobacco, War, and National Consumption

The use of cigarettes surged in the 20th century, particularly during the World Wars. Soldiers were often issued tobacco in their rations, and smoking became a ritual for calming nerves, curbing hunger, and creating a sense of camaraderie. During World War I, tobacco was considered so essential to troop morale that families often included it in care packages sent from home.During World War II, the Maltese government banned tobacco cultivation in order to prioritise food production. Around 40 acres of land were converted for farming. Yet, demand for tobacco remained high, especially among soldiers and civilians experiencing wartime stress and uncertainty. After the war, cigarette consumption continued at high levels. However, the local tobacco industry struggled due to disruptions in global supply chains and the introduction of stricter government regulations. For many years, the state maintained a monopoly over tobacco imports and production through the Malta Tobacco Company.

Colombos: A Maltese Tobacco Giant

One of the most successful tobacco companies in Malta was C. Colombos, a major manufacturer of Egyptian-style cigarettes in Malta, founded in 1868 by Constantine Colombos from Chios, Greece. It started as a small business in a one-storey building at 110 Strada Vescovo (now Archbishop Street) in Valletta, with just two workers producing small quantities of tobacco and lead for pipe smoking. In 1881, the company expanded and added equipment to cut tobacco by hand. Two years later, in 1883, Colombos launched its most famous product: the ‘Aristocratic’ cigarette. By 1917, they were selling 15 million cigarettes in Malta and Cairo.

After Constantine’s death in 1899, his sons John and Michael took over. By 1910, they had built a modern four-storey factory. Colombos became known for its clean, advanced facilities that kept tobacco fresh with humidity control and quality packaging. Their cigarettes were hand-rolled or machine-made using French rice paper and later sealed in airtight tins for export. Colombos’s production scale and factory design were regarded as industry-leading in their day. They were also known for taking care of their workers.

In 1915, the company became a limited liability company, though it remained family-run. At its peak, it employed over 360 workers and produced more than 60 different cigarette brands. Colombos sold its products all over the world, including South Africa, India, the Caribbean, and the rest of the British Empire. It even won awards at the 1886 Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London. Though the factory closed in the 1950s, another firm, Joseph Licari, continued production in the same building. Licari also had a factory and warehouse in Cospicua.  Colombos cigarettes remained popular into the 1960s, remembered for their rich scent, neat packaging, and consistent quality.

A.G. Cousis and Valletta’s Global Reach

Although not based in Cottonera, A.G. Cousis played a major role in shaping Malta’s tobacco industry. The company started in 1872 in Vavalla, Macedonia, and expanded to Malta in 1877. It set up a large factory on St Ursula Street in Valletta, with additional sites at the Marina and several retail shops throughout the capital. A.G. Cousis produced more than 130 different cigarette brands, including popular names like Dubec, Memphis, Regina, and Clio. These brands weren’t just for locals, they were shipped to major British and Allied naval ports such as Cairo and Gibraltar.

At one point, the company was managed by Joseph Howard, who later became Malta’s first Prime Minister. Cousis became well known for its stylish packaging, strong exports, and creative marketing. It even sponsored the Cousis Shield, a football competition that added to its brand recognition. Though the company shut down in the 1930s, A.G. Cousis remains one of Malta’s most iconic tobacco businesses from that era.

Marich & Co: A Valletta Tradition & the Famous Smoking Divan

Founded in 1838 by Vincenzo Marich, V. Marich & Co. was one of Malta’s oldest and most respected tobacco companies. Located at 44 Palace Square in Valletta, the shop wasn’t just a place to buy tobacco—it became a well-known ‘smoking divan’ or lounge, where Maltese elites, British naval officers, and visiting dignitaries would gather to relax and socialise.

Marich & Co. earned several royal appointments, including supplying tobacco to the Prince of Wales and the Duke of Edinburgh. The company also exported its products to places such as the UK, Channel Islands, Bermuda, and India. Interestingly, A.G. Cousis manufactured the Marich-brand cigarettes for them. Even after their Valletta shop was bombed during World War II, the business continued from new premises in Sliema. It later became a local distributor for popular brands like du Maurier and Four Square cigarettes.

In 1960, the original shop space was taken over by Café Cordina, which still operates today. Visitors enjoying a coffee there are sitting in the very room where Malta’s upper class once gathered to smoke, chat, and unwind. This change marked the end of a tobacco legacy that had lasted for more than 120 years.

Image courtesy of ‘The Rizzo Marich Dynasty and the Tobacco Industry in Malta’ by Noel Toledo

Malta’s oldest and most respected tobacco companies

British American Tobacco in Malta: Industry, Workers & Legacy

In the early 1900s, Malta’s tobacco industry changed dramatically with the arrival of large international companies. The most influential was British American Tobacco (BAT), created in 1902 through a partnership between the UK’s Imperial Tobacco Company and the American Tobacco Company, led by James “Buck” Duke.

BAT opened its Malta depot in 1907, at Barriera Wharf in Valletta, using the brand name W.D. & H.O. Wills, known locally as Il-Fabbrika ta’ Wills. The factory quickly became a key player in the local market, especially with affordable cigarette brands like The Flag, which became popular among the working class. At the same time, luxury brands like Dubec from A.G. Cousis were marketed to wealthier customers, showing a clear class divide in tobacco consumption.

A photograph of the British- American Tobacco Company in Malta, taken in the 1920s. The occasion was probably the retirement of Mr. H.R.E Lee, General Manager of the Company in Malta, after serving for 41 years. The employees, who at the time counted to 600 presented souvenirs as gifts.

Technology and Growth

By the 1950s, BAT had modernised its production thanks to Malta’s electrification by Crompton-Parkinson. New automated machines handled cutting, blending, and adding filters to cigarettes. By the 1960s, the factory could produce more than 9,000 cigarettes per minute, using modern packaging with cellophane and foil. These cigarettes were exported to North Africa and British territories and distributed locally. Every cigarette pack went through strict quality control and lab testing. Marketing was also carefully planned, many products used simple, bold logos that could be recognized even by those who couldn’t read. A good example is the rebranding of Red Spot to Black Spot, which became especially popular in Gozo.

Women in the Industry and Cottonera’s Contribution

BAT played an important role in offering employment opportunities for women, helping to transform the local workforce. As early as the late 1800s, companies like BAT and Licari’s factory on St Michael’s Street, Cospicua hired women to hand-roll and pack tobacco products. Licari also sold loose tobacco and cigarette-rolling tools, making Cottonera a key part of Malta’s early tobacco economy. By the 1920s, women made up the majority of tobacco factory workers. Their demands for better conditions marked some of the first female-led labour protests in Malta. By the 1950s, 101 of the 133 workers at BAT’s Barriera Wharf factory were women. The company provided amenities like a canteen, clinic, and sports club, which made it one of the more progressive employers at the time.

Mergers: Carreras, Rothmans, and CCCL

In 1972, BAT merged with Rothmans in Malta to form Central Cigarette Company Ltd. (CCCL). This new company quickly became the island’s top tobacco producer, controlling 96% of the market.

Rothmans had already brought the Carreras brand to Malta in 1964, first for export, and then for the local market, with products like Dunhill and Guards. Creative marketing, like pack-swap promotions, helped these brands grow in popularity. In fact, the success of the Malta merger inspired similar business models in places like Fiji.

Modern Changes and Global Vision

When Malta joined the European Union, BAT changed its focus. In 2007, it stopped making cigarettes locally and shifted to trading, marketing, and distribution. That same year, British American Tobacco (Malta) Ltd was officially launched. Production stopped, but operations continued from the Bulebel facility, and all employees kept their jobs under the same conditions. General Manager Ronnie Abela confirmed that workers’ rights were protected during the transition.

Today, BAT Malta manages well-known international brands like Rothmans, Dunhill, and Lucky Strike. It remains a major player in the local economy and is part of BAT’s global mission to create “A Better Tomorrow.”

From Cultural Staple to Public Health Concern

By the 1950s and 60s, growing awareness of the health risks associated with smoking began to influence public opinion. The first health warnings appeared, and research increasingly linked smoking to serious diseases. As scientific evidence about the dangers of tobacco use mounted, governments around the world, including Malta’s, began to take action. In partnership with international institutions like the World Health Organisation, countries passed laws banning tobacco advertising, raising taxes on cigarettes, and creating smoke-free public spaces. Public health campaigns began to educate the public, and smoking rates started to fall.

Still, tobacco’s economic impact persisted. In 2017, Malta imported over half a million U.S. dollars’ worth of tobacco and tobacco substitutes. By 2025, the smoking tobacco market in Malta is expected to generate around $11.1 million in revenue, with an estimated annual growth rate of 2.34% until 2030. The human and financial cost of smoking in Malta remains high. An estimated 347 people die each year from smoking-related illnesses. The overall economic cost of tobacco use is estimated at over €200 million annually. In 2022, 23.1% of Maltese adults used tobacco: 25.5% of men and 20.6% of women. Among youth aged 15 to 16, 10% smoked cigarettes and 7.1% used e-cigarettes, based on 2019 data. A 77.6% tax is levied on cigarettes, but illicit trade continues to pose a challenge. Counterfeit tobacco products make up about 9.5% of the market, costing Malta an estimated €10 million in lost tax revenue each year.

Cottonera’s Tobacco Legacy

For Cottonera, tobacco was more than an industry—it was a way of life. Smoking was part of the social fabric: enjoyed in band clubs, at bocci pitches, or during quiet moments outside corner shops. Older men rolling their own cigarettes remained a common sight into the late 20th century.

Although cultural attitudes have changed and smoking rates have declined, Cottonera’s connection to tobacco endures. It lives on in oral histories, in black-and-white photographs, and in the memories of workers and families who once relied on the industry.

Malta may be small, but its role in the global tobacco trade was significant. The country balanced international exports with a strong local market, and Cottonera stood at the heart of that story. Today, the tobacco legacy in Cottonera reflects a history of trade, labour, resilience, and community, woven through centuries and still faintly visible in the memories and traditions of those who lived here.

 Photo of Dom Mintoff who is from Bormla smoking a pipe