Roman Malta

The production of textiles, a tradition that has always been one of the major pillars of Malta’s economy, has a long-standing role in the island’s history. One of the earliest historical mentions of Malta involves Caius Verres, who was the governor of Sicily between 73 and 71 BC. In his writings (the Verrines), the Roman statesman Cicero accuses Verres of corruption and turning the ancient Roman capital of Malta, Melite (now known as Mdina/Rabat), into a textile factory for making women’s clothing. The word ‘textiles’ comes from the Latin word textrinum. Verres kept much of the profit from this industry for himself.

These fabrics were likely made of linen, not cotton. Linen is made from the flax plant, while cotton comes from the boll of the cotton plant after the flower has died.

An ancient historian named Diodorus Siculus praised Maltese textiles for their high quality, describing them as “famous for their fineness and softness.” Cicero also mentioned a special type of cushion, called a pulvinus, made from sheer (transparent) Maltese cloth and filled with roses. Verres, the corrupt governor, sat on these cushions as he was carried around in his litter, showing off the luxurious appeal of Maltese textiles.

The introduction of cotton to Malta by the Arabs in the 9th century AD was a game-changer. For the next 900 years, the Maltese economy thrived on the cultivation, spinning, weaving, and export of cotton. Cotton’s importance was so great that the symbol of the cotton plant often appeared on old coins, showing its huge impact on the economy.

During the late medieval period, Maltese cotton was already a valued export. And where did merchant ships sail out from? Yes, you guessed it; from the harbour villages of what we now call Cottonera. In 1414, King Ferdinand ordered that two or three officials be chosen to carefully inspect the cotton meant for export. These officials were told to clearly mark the cotton bales to show their high quality. The export of cotton from Malta kept growing, and in 1472, a tax of two percent was placed on exported cotton to help maintain the walls of Mdina. In 1492, after a request by the Università (the official body of local nobles and gentry governing Malta) Viceroy D. Ferrante de Acuna decided that every year on the feast of St Martin, six officials experienced in the cotton trade but without personal interest in it would be chosen. Their job was to set prices and collect taxes on the spun cotton. Additionally, laws called Bandi were made to prevent locals from exporting cotton seeds to other countries.

The Order of St John

When the Knights of St John arrived in Malta in 1530, they found a flourishing cotton industry

An eyewitness account of Grand Master L’Isle Adam’s entry into Mdina, as recorded by Giacomo Bosio, describes that both peasant and gentry (richer people) were entirely dressed in locally spun cotton.

Bosio writes:

‘All wore a kind of suit reaching down to their knees (il-geżwira). They were apparelled (dressed) wholly in local cotton, which thrives greatly in the Island.’

Due to their religious rules, the Knights Hospitallers were not allowed to engage in commercial activities, so they left the cotton trade to the Maltese. However, they made sure to support and regulate it. They set cotton prices and required foreign businessmen to pay a ten percent advance on every cotton order. To encourage trade, merchants were also exempted from paying local customs duties.

From 1530 to 1798, Malta was a vassal state of the Kingdom of Sicily, part of the Spanish Empire. As a result, Maltese merchants established colonies in Spain and were known for selling cotton and cloth. One such colony was called Balzunetta, meaning ‘little Barcelona.’ The Catalans (people who lived in Barcelona) were allowed a year-long grace period (meaning they didn’t have to pay any money for a year) for cash payments from Maltese merchants. Spanish authorities banned cotton from the Levant, importing only high-quality cotton from Malta.

18th Century Maltese Lateen-Rigged Brigantine

Merchants sailed out from the harbour towns in small, light vessels called Brigantinos to Sicily, carrying goods like spun cotton, stockings, jackets, napkins, caps, gloves, Maltese linen, twill and fustian weaves, cotton blankets from Gozo, and Gozitan lace. They picked up large quantities of silk in Messina to sell elsewhere. Sicilians supplied Malta with foodstuffs and manufactured goods such as sugar, coffee, cocoa, iron nails, and glass. In return, Maltese merchants bought Sicilian grains and animal fodder to resell on the continent.

Sticking close to the coast, they navigated to Italy, France, Spain, Lisbon, and the Canary Islands, trading in ports such as Genoa, Marseilles, and Cadiz along the way. Brigantine ships had twenty oars, two small cannons, swivel-guns, and muskets. Each boat was manned by about twenty-two men, with merchants doubling as sailors and musketeers to defend against enemy corsairs (pirates).

Malta’s trade network extended beyond Catholic countries. Maltese merchants traded with Greece, and Malta was a key quarantine and meeting point for French ships heading to the Levant. Despite the dangers of corsairing, Maltese merchants were also active in Tunis, buying prize ships and cargoes in the seventeenth century.

By the eighteenth century, Malta’s cotton industry had grown so much that it employed most of the island’s workers. Everyone had a role: capitalists (business investors) and small savers who lent money to merchants, merchants who bought and sold cotton seeds and yarn, middlemen who connected farmers with merchants, home-based spinners, and sea captains who owned ships and transported the goods overseas.

Malta’s first ‘Chamber of Commerce’

Later, in 1737, Grand Master Despuig established a Chamber of Commerce to regulate and protect everyone involved in the cotton trade. For instance, merchants and businessmen couldn’t send money abroad without the Chamber’s approval. When forming a company to charter a brigantine, four businessmen had to sign up. Those who violated the Chamber’s sea-trade laws faced hefty fines. The Chamber also aimed to ensure farmers and spinners received fair prices and weren’t exploited by middlemen.

Additionally, it worked to improve cotton farming and spinning, enhance the quality of cotton, and develop better transport systems. This encouraged farmers to dedicate more land to cotton cultivation, boosting employment in the industry.

In 1732, Grand Master Manoel de Vilhena built two hostels near the Floriana bastions to house elderly people without family support. He also built a block for poor girls next to the women’s quarters. Both young and old women spun cotton, and the Grand Master gave them half the profits from their work. As trade prospered, five schools were opened in Senglea, Cospicua, Vittoriosa, Zurrieq, and Zejtun, where many business people lived near Malta’s natural harbours. These schools aimed to teach students the basics of writing, arithmetic, and how to write business letters.

Grand Master Despuig 2

Farmers typically harvested two crops annually: a winter crop of legumes (beans and pulses), vegetables, or barley, and a summer crop of cotton. Cotton plants required constant care for drying, husking, and beating even after harvesting, made more challenging by the difficult terrain. One or two tumoli of land (1 tumolo/tomna = 12,100 square feet) supported a household, involving the entire family in cotton cultivation. There was no wastage in this process. The cotton seeds, valued at 8 scudi (old Maltese currency €0.24 = 1 scudo) per qantar (79.38 kg), were excellent fodder for cattle, sheep, and goats, fattening cows and improving their meat quality.

Mixed with forage and hay, the seeds also helped sheep and goats produce purer milk. The remaining parts of the cotton plant were used for heating ovens and cooking, as stone hearths were more common than stoves.

In the 1750s, the Gozitan cleric, Maltese linguist, and historian Agius de Soldanis reported that the cotton industry provided abundant work for farmers, spinners, weavers (mainly women and children), and merchants involved in export trade. Gozitans were especially skilled in weaving blankets. The traveller F. Brydone confirmed this situation when visiting in 1770. According to a 1776 Chamber of Commerce report, 500 quintali  (1 quintal = approximately 100 Kg) of cotton were exported per month, increasing to 800 quintali per month by 1798, indicating the Chamber’s success. Anyone who mattered on the island was somehow involved in the cotton industry.

Whilst in exile in France, for supporting French rule, the Maltese writer, philosopher, and linguist Mikiel Anton Vassali attempted a career cultivating cotton. On the other side of the stockades, Vincenzo Maria Borg (known as Ċensu Brared) was one of the leading cotton merchants in Malta and one of the main insurgent leaders during the French blockade of 1798–1800.

A Senglean Merchant makes it big!

In 1745-1746, almost 70% of the merchants coming back from Spain were from Senglea (L-Isla), Cospicua (Bormla), or Vittoriosa (Birgu). By 1791, most of the Maltese merchants in Spain, especially in Cadiz, were from Senglea and Cospicua, making up 77% of the community.

The textile industry offered a path for people to move up in a very class-conscious society. Antonio Caruana Brignone was born in Senglea (Isla) in 1753 and became very successful in Valencia, Spain, by selling cloth. His mother’s family had been in the cloth business in Spain for at least three generations. In 1768, Antonio and his brother Pedro Pablo started learning the trade from their uncle, Joseph Brignone, in a special group (Gremio de Mercaderes de Vara) called the Cloth Retailers Guild. Pedro Pablo stayed with the Guild and did very well until he retired to Malta in 1805. Antonio, on the other hand, decided to make cloth instead of just selling it. He opened a silk factory that won many prizes for its great products and new ideas, earning Royal patronage. His factory also created jobs for many people. Even in 1806, Antonio still kept in touch with Malta by sending some of his products back to his homeland.

Decline and Revival

When the Knights of St John left Malta, and the British took over in 1800, the cotton and lace industries faced tough times. Sir Alexander Ball, the first British Commissioner in Malta, tried hard to help the cotton industry grow. But, the Spanish Government stopped all foreign cotton from coming into their country. Still, Maltese merchants managed to trade other goods like agricultural produce for a while.

Cotton began to be produced on a large scale in India, Syria, and Egypt and was much cheaper than cotton produced in Malta. Bans on the importation of foreign cotton were lifted. Soon, shops in Valletta began selling ready-made cotton from England, which was more popular. Maltese cotton quality dropped because it got mixed with inferior cotton from Brazil, causing people to buy less local cotton. However, in the 1970s, Malta’s textile industry experienced something of a revival.

Factories like Wrangler (denim) and Crocheta (knitwear) opened in Malta and Gozo, providing many jobs. By 1976, the textile industry made up about 40% of Malta’s GDP (Gross Domestic Product). But later, rising labour costs and Malta joining the European Union caused these factories to move away.

Today, the textile and clothing industry in Malta is slowly making a comeback. Companies like Bortex are opening stores in every high street, bringing new life to the industry.

The Cotton Plant

In Botany, the cotton plant is called Gossypium. Five main types of cotton were grown on the Maltese Islands:

Red Cotton (Gossypium religiosum): This type, known in Maltese as Tan-Nankin, had a rust colour and needed a lot of moisture and rich soil. It doesn’t grow in Malta anymore.

White Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum): Called Ta’ Gallipoli, it needed the same conditions as Red Cotton. Its short fibres had to be mixed with longer ones to make strong spun material.

Gossypium herbaceum: This type was popular because it needed less water and was great for dyeing, making it a favourite of Barcelona merchants. However, when the cotton gin replaced the old spinning jenny in 1764, its short fibres made it less useful.

Gossypium barbadense: Introduced to Malta by Padre Carlo Ciacinto in the early 1900s, this type also needed little water. Local farmers called it Ta’ Patri Karlu after the padre.

Upland Long Staple: This American species, introduced in 1924, had long, fine fibres and produced a lot of cotton. Farmers loved it, but by then, the cotton industry in Malta was already declining.

Cotton seeds are planted in mid-April. By August and September, the cotton bolls crack open, ready for harvest. The following April, the cotton plant is pruned. If there’s no sudden frost and the soil is fertilized regularly, a plant can produce cotton for three years in a row.

Written with reference to:

• ‘The Maltese Textile Industry in Antiquity’ by Rev J. Busuttil. Published in ‘Melita Historica’, Vol. 4, No. 3 1966.
• ‘The Cotton Textile Industry in Malta’ by A.P. Vella. Accessed in July 2024 from
• https://vassallohistory.wordpress.com/the-cotton-textile-industry-in-malta/

Also available published in ‘Melita Historica’, Vol. 4, No. 3 1966.